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Income Taxes
 12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2022
Income Tax Disclosure [Abstract]  
Income Taxes Income Taxes
An analysis of the Provision for income taxes follows:
Year Ended December 31
202220212020
Current income taxes
  United States$248 $179 $252 
  State16 35 81 
  Other countries288 335 298 
    Total552 549 631 
Deferred income taxes
  United States(27)(18)62 
  State(1)(1)5 
  Other countries(29)(51)(22)
    Total(57)(70)45 
Total provision for income taxes$495 $479 $676 
The components of Income Before Income Taxes and Equity Interests follow:
Year Ended December 31
202220212020
United States$1,802 $1,580 $2,336 
Other countries538 645 594 
Total income before income taxes and equity interests$2,340 $2,225 $2,930 
Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are comprised of the following:
December 31
20222021
Deferred tax assets
Pension and other postretirement benefits$179 $215 
Tax credits and loss carryforwards 534 531 
Capitalized research costs(a)
118 — 
Lease liability116 116 
Prepaid royalties56 117 
Derivatives74 38 
Other353 317 
1,430 1,334 
Valuation allowances(299)(279)
Total deferred tax assets 1,131 1,055 
Deferred tax liabilities
Property, plant and equipment, net940 921 
Investments in subsidiaries101 105 
Intangible assets153 156 
Lease asset111 114 
Other229 228 
Total deferred tax liabilities1,534 1,524 
Net deferred tax assets (liabilities)$(403)$(469)
(a)     Capitalized research costs are attributable to research and development costs recorded as a period cost for financial reporting purposes but required to be capitalized for U.S. tax purposes and amortized primarily over a 5 period, beginning on January 1, 2022.
Valuation allowances at the end of 2022 primarily relate to tax credits, capital loss carryforwards, and income tax loss carryforwards of $1.2 billion. If these items are not utilized against taxable income, $534 of the income tax loss carryforwards will expire from 2023 through 2039. The remaining $687 has no expiration date.
Realization of income tax loss carryforwards is dependent on generating sufficient taxable income prior to expiration of these carryforwards. Although realization is not assured, we believe it is more likely than not that all of the deferred tax assets, net of applicable valuation allowances, will be realized. The amount of the deferred tax assets considered realizable could be reduced or increased due to changes in the tax environment or if estimates of future taxable income change during the carryforward period.
Presented below is a reconciliation of the Provision for income taxes computed at the U.S. federal statutory tax rate to the actual effective tax rate:
Year Ended December 31
202220212020
U.S. statutory rate applied to income before income taxes and equity interests21.0 %21.0 %21.0 %
State income taxes, net of federal tax benefit0.5 1.2 2.3 
Routine tax incentives(3.5)(5.8)(4.3)
Net nondeductible expenses1.4 1.5 0.8 
Net tax cost on foreign income2.4 2.4 2.7 
Valuation allowance1.3 2.4 0.7 
Other - net(a)
(1.9)(1.2)(0.1)
Effective income tax rate21.2 %21.5 %23.1 %
(a)    Other - net is composed of numerous items, none of which is greater than 1.05 percent of income before income taxes and equity interests.
As of December 31, 2022, we have accumulated undistributed earnings generated by our foreign subsidiaries of approximately $7.4 billion.  Earnings of $3.7 billion were previously subject to U.S. federal income tax.  Any additional taxes due with respect to such previously-taxed foreign earnings, if repatriated, would generally be limited to foreign and U.S. state income taxes. Deferred taxes have been recorded on $0.7 billion of earnings of foreign consolidated subsidiaries expected to be repatriated.  We do not intend to distribute the remaining $3.0 billion of previously-taxed foreign earnings and therefore have not recorded deferred taxes for foreign and U.S. state income taxes on such earnings. 
We consider any excess of the amount for financial reporting over tax basis in our foreign subsidiaries to be indefinitely reinvested. The determination of deferred tax liabilities on the amount of financial reporting over tax basis or the $3.0 billion of previously-taxed foreign earnings is not practicable.
Presented below is a reconciliation of the beginning and ending amounts of unrecognized income tax benefits:
202220212020
Balance at January 1$506 $497 $383 
Gross increases for tax positions of prior years22 62 144 
Gross decreases for tax positions of prior years(38)(37)(34)
Gross increases for tax positions of the current year36 42 36 
Settlements(21)(39)(22)
Other(17)(19)(10)
Balance at December 31$488 $506 $497 
Of the amounts recorded as unrecognized income tax benefits at December 31, 2022, $420 would reduce our effective tax rate if recognized.
We recognize accrued interest and penalties related to unrecognized income tax benefits in Provision for income taxes. During each of the three years ended December 31, 2022, the net impact of interest and penalties was not significant. Total accrued penalties and net accrued interest was $35 and $24 at December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively.
It is reasonably possible that a number of uncertainties could be resolved within the next 12 months. The aggregate resolution of the uncertainties could be up to $130, while none of the uncertainties is individually significant. Resolution of these matters is not expected to have a material effect on our financial condition, results of operations or liquidity.
As of December 31, 2022, the following tax years remain subject to examination for the major jurisdictions where we conduct business:
JurisdictionYears
United States2016to2022
United Kingdom2020to2022
Brazil2016to2022
China2011to2022
South Korea2020to2022
Our originally filed U.S. federal income tax returns have been audited through 2015; however, our amended U.S. federal income tax returns are subject to audit for 2013-2018.
State income tax returns are generally subject to examination for a period of 3 to 5 years after filing of the respective return. The state effect of any changes to filed federal positions remains subject to examination by various states for a period of up to two years after formal notification to the states. We have various state income tax return positions in the process of examination, administrative appeals or litigation.
The Brazilian tax authority, Secretaria da Receita Federal do Brasil ("RFB"), concluded an audit for the taxable periods from 2008-2013. This audit included a review of our determinations of amortization of certain goodwill arising from prior acquisitions in Brazil, and the RFB has proposed adjustments that effectively eliminate the goodwill amortization benefits related to these transactions. Administrative appeals have been exhausted with a partial favorable decision for our position, and the remaining dispute is in the judicial phase. Based upon the matters that remain in dispute, the amount of the proposed tax adjustments and penalties is approximately $60 as of December 31, 2022 (translated at the December 31, 2022 currency exchange rate).  The amount ultimately in dispute will be significantly greater because of interest. We believe we have meritorious defenses and intend to vigorously defend against these proposed adjustments; however, it is expected to take a number of years to reach resolution of this matter.
As part of the tax audit of our U.S. federal income tax returns for the taxable years ended December 31, 2017 and 2018, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service proposed an adjustment that would increase the amount of the one-time transition tax on certain undistributed earnings of foreign subsidiaries owed by us. We believe we have adequate reserves and meritorious defenses and intend to vigorously defend against the proposed adjustment; however, it is expected to take a number of years to reach resolution of this matter.