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Income Taxes
 12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2023
Income Tax Disclosure [Abstract]  
Income Taxes Income Taxes
An analysis of the Provision for income taxes follows:
Year Ended December 31
202320222021
Current income taxes
  United States$370 $248 $179 
  State54 16 35 
  Other countries351 288 335 
    Total775 552 549 
Deferred income taxes
  United States(133)(27)(18)
  State(28)(1)(1)
  Other countries(161)(29)(51)
    Total(322)(57)(70)
Total provision for income taxes$453 $495 $479 
The components of Income Before Income Taxes and Equity Interests follow:
Year Ended December 31
202320222021
United States$2,004 $1,802 $1,580 
Other countries17 538 645 
Total income before income taxes and equity interests$2,021 $2,340 $2,225 
Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are comprised of the following:
December 31
20232022
Deferred tax assets
Pension and other postretirement benefits$182 $179 
Tax credits and loss carryforwards 668 534 
Capitalized research costs224 118 
Lease liability137 116 
Derivatives80 74 
Other357 409 
1,648 1,430 
Valuation allowances(302)(299)
Total deferred tax assets 1,346 1,131 
Deferred tax liabilities
Property, plant and equipment, net943 940 
Investments in subsidiaries110 101 
Goodwill80 76 
Intangible assets12 153 
Lease asset128 111 
Other177 153 
Total deferred tax liabilities1,450 1,534 
Net deferred tax assets (liabilities)$(104)$(403)

Valuation allowances at the end of 2023 primarily relate to tax credits, capital loss carryforwards, and income tax loss carryforwards of $1.5 billion. If these items are not utilized against taxable income, $463 of the income tax loss carryforwards will expire from 2024 through 2043. The remaining $1.0 billion has no expiration date.
Realization of income tax loss carryforwards is dependent on generating sufficient taxable income prior to expiration of these carryforwards. Although realization is not assured, we believe it is more likely than not that all of the deferred tax assets, net of applicable valuation allowances, will be realized. The amount of the deferred tax assets considered realizable could be reduced or increased due to changes in the tax environment or if estimates of future taxable income change during the carryforward period.
Presented below is a reconciliation of the Provision for income taxes computed at the U.S. federal statutory tax rate to the actual effective tax rate:
Year Ended December 31
202320222021
U.S. statutory rate applied to income before income taxes and equity interests21.0 %21.0 %21.0 %
State income taxes, net of federal tax benefit1.0 0.5 1.2 
Routine tax incentives(3.9)(3.5)(5.8)
Net nondeductible expenses2.4 1.4 1.5 
Net tax (benefit) cost on foreign income1.1 2.4 2.4 
Valuation allowance2.8 1.3 2.4 
Tax effects of the impairment of intangible assets(1.4)— — 
Other - net(a)
(0.6)(1.9)(1.2)
Effective income tax rate22.4 %21.2 %21.5 %
(a)    Other - net is composed of numerous items, none of which is greater than 1.05 percent of income before income taxes and equity interests.
As of December 31, 2023, we have accumulated undistributed earnings generated by our foreign subsidiaries of approximately $7.2 billion.  Earnings of $3.3 billion were previously subject to U.S. federal income tax.  Any additional taxes due with respect to such previously-taxed foreign earnings, if repatriated, would generally be limited to foreign and U.S. state income taxes. Deferred taxes have been recorded on $0.8 billion of earnings of foreign consolidated subsidiaries expected to be repatriated.  We do not intend to distribute the remaining $2.5 billion of previously-taxed foreign earnings and therefore have not recorded deferred taxes for foreign and U.S. state income taxes on such earnings. 
We consider any excess of the amount for financial reporting over tax basis in our foreign subsidiaries to be indefinitely reinvested. The determination of deferred tax liabilities on the amount of financial reporting over tax basis or the $2.5 billion of previously-taxed foreign earnings is not practicable.
Presented below is a reconciliation of the beginning and ending amounts of unrecognized income tax benefits:
202320222021
Balance at January 1$488 $506 $497 
Gross increases for tax positions of prior years38 22 62 
Gross decreases for tax positions of prior years(13)(38)(37)
Gross increases for tax positions of the current year109 36 42 
Settlements(26)(21)(39)
Other(8)(17)(19)
Balance at December 31$588 $488 $506 
Of the amounts recorded as unrecognized income tax benefits at December 31, 2023, $520 would reduce our effective tax rate if recognized.
We recognize accrued interest and penalties related to unrecognized income tax benefits in Provision for income taxes. During each of the three years ended December 31, 2023, the net impact of interest and penalties was not significant. Total accrued penalties and net accrued interest was $45 and $35 at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.
It is reasonably possible that a number of uncertainties could be resolved within the next 12 months. The aggregate resolution of the uncertainties could be up to $190, while none of the uncertainties is individually significant. Resolution of these matters is not expected to have a material effect on our financial condition, results of operations or liquidity.
As of December 31, 2023, the following tax years remain subject to examination for the major jurisdictions where we conduct business:
JurisdictionYears
United States2016to2023
United Kingdom2021to2023
Brazil2019to2023
China2014to2023
South Korea2020to2023
Our originally filed U.S. federal income tax returns have been audited through 2015; however, our amended U.S. federal income tax returns are subject to audit for 2013-2018.
State income tax returns are generally subject to examination for a period of 3 to 5 years after filing of the respective return. The state effect of any changes to filed federal positions remains subject to examination by various states for a period of up to two years after formal notification to the states. We have various state income tax return positions in the process of examination, administrative appeals or litigation.
The Brazilian tax authority, Secretaria da Receita Federal do Brasil ("RFB"), concluded an audit for the taxable periods from 2008-2013. This audit included a review of our determinations of amortization of certain goodwill arising from prior acquisitions in Brazil, and the RFB has proposed adjustments that effectively eliminate the goodwill amortization benefits related to these transactions. Administrative appeals have been exhausted with a partial favorable decision for our position, and the remaining dispute is in the judicial phase. Based upon the matters that remain in dispute, the amount of the proposed tax and penalty adjustments is approximately $50 as of December 31, 2023 (translated at the December 31, 2023 currency exchange rate).  The amount ultimately in dispute will be significantly greater because of interest. The first instance judge has issued a decision in our favor, finding that our amortization of the goodwill at issue was valid; however, an appeal is pending and final resolution of this matter is expected to take a number of years.
As part of the tax audit of our U.S. federal income tax returns for the taxable years ended December 31, 2017 and 2018, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service proposed an adjustment that would increase the amount of the one-time transition tax on certain undistributed earnings of foreign subsidiaries owed by us. We believe we have adequate reserves and meritorious defenses and intend to vigorously defend against the proposed adjustment; however, it is expected to take a number of years to reach resolution of this matter.