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Summary of Accounting Principles | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2017
Accounting Policies [Abstract] |
Summary of Accounting Principles | SUMMARY OF ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES The preparation of financial statements requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses. Actual results could differ from those estimates. Certain reclassifications have been made to the prior year amounts to conform to the current year presentation. Consolidation. The Consolidated Financial Statements include the accounts of United Technologies Corporation (UTC) and its controlled subsidiaries. Intercompany transactions have been eliminated. Cash and Cash Equivalents. Cash and cash equivalents includes cash on hand, demand deposits and short-term cash investments that are highly liquid in nature and have original maturities of three months or less. On occasion, we are required to maintain cash deposits with certain banks with respect to contractual obligations related to acquisitions or divestitures or other legal obligations. As of December 31, 2017 and 2016, the amount of such restricted cash was approximately $33 million and $32 million, respectively. Accounts Receivable. Current and long-term accounts receivable as of December 31, 2017 include retainage of $118 million and unbilled receivables of $2,770 million, which includes approximately $1,109 million of unbilled receivables under commercial aerospace long-term aftermarket contracts. Current and long-term accounts receivable as of December 31, 2016 include retainage of $106 million and unbilled receivables of $2,786 million, which includes approximately $1,169 million of unbilled receivables under commercial aerospace long-term aftermarket contracts. See Note 5 for discussion of commercial aerospace industry assets and commitments. Retainage represents amounts that, pursuant to the applicable contract, are not due until project completion and acceptance by the customer. Unbilled receivables represent revenues that are not currently billable to the customer under the terms of the contract. These items are expected to be billed and collected in the normal course of business. Marketable Equity Securities. Equity securities that have a readily determinable fair value and that we do not intend to trade are classified as available-for-sale and carried at fair value. Unrealized holding gains and losses are recorded as a separate component of shareowners' equity, net of deferred income taxes. In January 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-01, Financial Instruments - Overall: Recognition and Measurement of Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities. This ASU modifies how entities measure equity investments and present changes in the fair value of financial liabilities. Upon adoption, investments that do not result in consolidation and are not accounted for under the equity method generally must be carried at fair value, with changes in fair value recognized in net income. As discussed in Note 10, we have approximately $5 million of unrealized gains on these securities recorded in Accumulated other comprehensive loss in our Consolidated Balance Sheet as of December 31, 2017. We adopted this standard effective January 1, 2018, with these amounts recorded directly to retained earnings as of that date. Inventories and Contracts in Progress. Inventories and contracts in progress are stated at the lower of cost or estimated realizable value and are primarily based on first-in, first-out (FIFO) or average cost methods; however, certain UTC Aerospace Systems and UTC Climate, Controls & Security entities use the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method. If inventories that were valued using the LIFO method had been valued under the FIFO method, they would have been higher by $106 million and $114 million at December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively. Costs accumulated against specific contracts or orders are at actual cost. Valuation reserves for excess, obsolete, and slow-moving inventory are estimated by comparing the inventory levels of individual parts to both future sales forecasts or production requirements and historical usage rates in order to identify inventory where the resale value or replacement value is less than inventoriable cost. Other factors that management considers in determining the adequacy of these reserves include whether individual inventory parts meet current specifications and cannot be substituted for a part currently being sold or used as a service part, overall market conditions, and other inventory management initiatives. Manufacturing costs are allocated to current production and firm contracts. Within commercial aerospace, inventory costs attributable to new engine offerings are recognized based on the average cost per unit expected over the life of each contract using the units-of-delivery method of percentage of completion accounting. Under this method, costs of initial engine deliveries in excess of the projected contract per unit average cost are capitalized, and these capitalized amounts are subsequently expensed as additional engine deliveries occur for engines with costs below the projected contract per unit average cost over the life of the contract. As described in the "Revenue Recognition" section of Note 1 below, these costs will be eliminated through retained earnings and will not be amortized into future earnings upon adoption of Accounting Standards Update (ASU) 2014-09, Revenue from Contracts with Customers effective January 1, 2018. Equity Method Investments. Investments in which we have the ability to exercise significant influence, but do not control, are accounted for under the equity method of accounting and are included in Other assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheet. Under this method of accounting, our share of the net earnings or losses of the investee is included in Other income, net on the Consolidated Statement of Operations since the activities of the investee are closely aligned with the operations of the business segment holding the investment. We evaluate our equity method investments whenever events or changes in circumstance indicate that the carrying amounts of such investments may be impaired. If a decline in the value of an equity method investment is determined to be other than temporary, a loss is recorded in earnings in the current period. Goodwill and Intangible Assets. Goodwill represents costs in excess of fair values assigned to the underlying net assets of acquired businesses. Goodwill and intangible assets deemed to have indefinite lives are not amortized. Goodwill and indefinite‑lived intangible assets are subject to annual impairment testing using the guidance and criteria described in the Intangibles - Goodwill and Other Topic of the FASB ASC. This testing compares carrying values to fair values and, when appropriate, the carrying value of these assets is reduced to fair value. In January 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-04, Intangibles - Goodwill and Other (Topic 350): Simplifying the Test for Goodwill Impairment. This ASU eliminates Step 2 of the current goodwill impairment test, which requires a hypothetical purchase price allocation to measure goodwill impairment. A goodwill impairment loss will instead be measured at the amount by which a reporting unit's carrying value exceeds its fair value, not to exceed the recorded amount of goodwill. The provisions of this ASU are effective for years beginning after December 15, 2019, with early adoption permitted for any impairment test performed on testing dates after January 1, 2017. We early adopted this standard as of July 1, 2017 and this ASU did not have a significant impact on our financial statements or disclosures. Intangible assets consist of service portfolios, patents, trademarks/tradenames, customer relationships and other intangible assets including a collaboration asset, as discussed further in Note 2. Acquired intangible assets are recognized at fair value in purchase accounting and then amortized to cost of sales and selling, general & administrative expenses over the applicable useful lives. Also included within other intangible assets are commercial aerospace payments made to secure certain contractual rights to provide product on new aircraft platforms. We classify amortization of such payments as a reduction of sales. Such payments are capitalized when there are distinct rights obtained and there are sufficient incremental cash flows to support the recoverability of the assets established. Otherwise, the applicable portion of the payments are expensed. Consideration paid on these contractual commitments is capitalized when it is no longer conditional. Useful lives of finite-lived intangible assets are estimated based upon the nature of the intangible asset and the industry in which the intangible asset is used. These intangible assets are amortized based on the pattern in which the economic benefits of the intangible assets are consumed. For both our commercial aerospace collaboration assets and exclusivity arrangements, the pattern of economic benefit generally results in lower amortization during the development period with increasing amortization as programs enter full rate production and aftermarket cycles. If a pattern of economic benefit cannot be reliably determined, a straight-line amortization method is used. The range of estimated useful lives is as follows:
Collaboration assets | 30 years
Customer relationships and related programs | 1 to 50 years
Purchased service contracts | 5 to 25 years
Patents & trademarks | 4 to 40 years
Exclusivity assets | 5 to 25 years
Other Long-Lived Assets. We evaluate the potential impairment of other long-lived assets whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the related carrying amounts may not be recoverable. If the carrying value of other long-lived assets held and used exceeds the sum of the undiscounted expected future cash flows, the carrying value is written down to fair value. Long-Term Financing Receivables. Our long-term financing receivables primarily represent balances related to the aerospace businesses such as long-term trade accounts receivable, leases, and notes receivable. We also have other long-term receivables in our commercial businesses; however, both the individual and aggregate amounts of those other receivables are not significant. Long-term trade accounts receivable, including unbilled receivables related to long-term aftermarket contracts, are principally amounts arising from the sale of goods and services with a contractual maturity date or realization period of greater than one year and are recognized as "Other assets" in our Consolidated Balance Sheet. Notes and leases receivable represent notes and lease receivables other than receivables related to operating leases, and are recognized as "Customer financing assets" in our Consolidated Balance Sheet. The following table summarizes the balance by class of aerospace business-related long-term receivables as of December 31, 2017 and 2016:
(dollars in millions) |  | 2017 |  | 2016
Long-term trade accounts receivable |  | $ | 973 |  |  | $ | 926 |
Notes and leases receivable |  | 424 |  |  | 430 |
Total long-term receivables |  | $ | 1,397 |  |  | $ | 1,356 |
We determine a receivable is impaired when, based on current information and events, it is probable that we will be unable to collect amounts due according to the contractual terms of the receivable agreement. Factors considered in assessing collectability and risk include, but are not limited to, examination of credit quality indicators and other evaluation measures, underlying value of any collateral or security interests, significant past due balances, historical losses, and existing economic conditions. We determine credit ratings for each customer in our portfolio based upon public information and information obtained directly from our customers. We conduct a review of customer credit ratings, published historical credit default rates for different rating categories, and multiple third-party aircraft value publications as a basis to validate the reasonableness of the allowance for losses on these balances quarterly or when events and circumstances warrant. Customer credit ratings range from customers with an extremely strong capacity to meet financial obligations, to customers whose uncollateralized receivable is in default. There can be no assurance that actual results will not differ from estimates or that consideration of these factors in the future will not result in an increase or decrease to the allowance for credit losses on long-term receivables. Based upon the customer credit ratings, approximately 11% and 13% of our long-term receivables were considered to bear high credit risk as of December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively. See Note 5 for further discussion of commercial aerospace industry assets and commitments. Reserves for credit losses on receivables relate to specifically identified receivables that are evaluated individually for impairment. For notes and leases receivable, we determine a specific reserve for exposure based on the difference between the carrying value of the receivable and the estimated fair value of the related collateral in connection with the evaluation of credit risk and collectability. For long-term trade accounts receivable, we evaluate credit risk and collectability individually to determine if an allowance is necessary. Our long-term receivables reflected in the table above, which include reserves of $17 million as of both December 31, 2017 and 2016, are individually evaluated for impairment. At both December 31, 2017 and 2016, we did not have any significant balances that are considered to be delinquent, on non-accrual status, past due 90 days or more, or considered to be impaired. Income Taxes. In the ordinary course of business there is inherent uncertainty in quantifying our income tax positions. We assess our income tax positions and record tax benefits for all years subject to examination based upon management's evaluation of the facts, circumstances, and information available at the reporting date. For those tax positions where it is more-likely-than-not that a tax benefit will be sustained, we have recorded the largest amount of tax benefit with a greater than 50% likelihood of being realized upon ultimate settlement with a taxing authority that has full knowledge of all relevant information. For those income tax positions where it is not more-likely-than-not that a tax benefit will be sustained, no tax benefit has been recognized in the financial statements. Where applicable, associated interest expense has also been recognized. We recognize accrued interest related to unrecognized tax benefits in interest expense. Penalties, if incurred, would be recognized as a component of income tax expense. On December 22, 2017 the TCJA was enacted. The TCJA contains a new law that may subject the Company to a tax on Global Intangible Low-Taxed Income (GILTI), beginning in 2018. GILTI is a tax on foreign income in excess of a deemed return on tangible assets of foreign corporations. The FASB has provided that companies subject to GILTI have the option to account for the GILTI tax as a period cost if and when incurred, or to recognize deferred taxes for temporary differences, including outside basis differences, expected to reverse as GILTI. We have elected to account for GILTI as a period cost, if incurred. Revenue Recognition. As a result of our diverse product and service mix and customer base, we use multiple revenue recognition practices. We recognize sales for products and services in accordance with the provisions of Staff Accounting Bulletin (SAB) Topic 13, Revenue Recognition, as applicable. Products and services included within the scope of this SAB Topic include heating, ventilating, air-conditioning and refrigeration systems, certain alarm and fire detection and suppression systems, commercially funded research and development contracts and certain aerospace components. Sales within the scope of this SAB Topic are recognized when persuasive evidence of an arrangement exists, product delivery has occurred or services have been rendered, pricing is fixed or determinable and collectability is reasonably assured. Subsequent changes in service contracts are accounted for prospectively. Contract Accounting and Separately Priced Maintenance and Extended Warranty Aftermarket Contracts: For our construction-type and certain production-type contracts, sales are recognized on a percentage-of-completion basis following contract accounting methods. Contracts consist of enforceable agreements which form the basis of our unit of accounting for measuring sales, accumulating costs and recording loss provisions as necessary. Contract accounting requires estimates of award fees and other sources of variable consideration as well as future costs over the performance period of the contract. Cost estimates also include the estimated cost of satisfying our offset obligations required under certain contracts. Cost estimates are subject to change and result in adjustments to margins on contracts in progress. The extent of progress toward completion on our long-term commercial aerospace equipment is measured using units of delivery or other contractual milestones. The extent of progress towards completion on our development and other cost reimbursement contracts in our aerospace businesses and elevator and escalator sales, installation, modernization and other construction contracts in our commercial businesses is measured using cost-to-cost based input measures. Contract costs include estimated inventoriable manufacturing, engineering, product warranty and product performance guarantee costs, as appropriate. For separately priced product maintenance and extended warranty aftermarket contracts, sales are recognized over the contract period. In the commercial businesses, sales are primarily recognized on a straight-line basis. In the aerospace businesses, sales are primarily recognized in proportion to cost as sufficient historical evidence indicates that costs of performing services under the contract are incurred on an other than straight-line basis. Loss provisions on original equipment contracts are recognized to the extent that estimated contract costs exceed the estimated consideration from the products contemplated under the contractual arrangement. For new commitments, we generally record loss provisions at the earlier of contract announcement or contract signing except for certain requirements contracts under which losses are recorded upon receipt of the purchase order which obligates us to perform. For existing commitments, anticipated losses on contracts are recognized in the period in which losses become evident. Products contemplated under contractual arrangements include firm quantities of products sold under contract and, in the large commercial engine and wheels and brakes businesses, future highly probable sales of replacement parts required by regulation that are expected to be sold subsequently for incorporation into the original equipment. In the large commercial engine and wheels and brakes businesses, when the combined original equipment and aftermarket arrangements for each individual sales campaign are profitable, we record original equipment product losses, as applicable, at the time of delivery. We review our cost estimates on significant contracts on a quarterly basis, and for others, no less frequently than annually or when circumstances change and warrant a modification to a previous estimate. We record changes in contract estimates using the cumulative catch-up method in accordance with the Revenue Recognition Topic of the FASB ASC. Operating profits included significant net unfavorable changes in aerospace contract estimates of approximately $110 million and $157 million in 2017 and 2016, respectively, primarily the result of unexpected increases in estimated costs related to Pratt & Whitney long term aftermarket contracts. Operating profits included significant net favorable changes in aerospace contract estimates of approximately $115 million in 2015, primarily representing favorable contract adjustments at Pratt & Whitney. Collaborations: Sales generated from engine programs, spare parts sales, and aftermarket business under collaboration arrangements are recorded consistent with our revenue recognition policies in our consolidated financial statements. Amounts attributable to our collaborators for their share of sales are recorded as cost of sales in our financial statements based upon the terms and nature of the arrangement. Costs associated with engine programs under collaborative arrangements are expensed as incurred. Under these arrangements, collaborators contribute their program share of engine parts, incur their own production costs and make certain payments to Pratt & Whitney for shared or joint program costs. The reimbursement of a collaborator's share of program costs is recorded as a reduction of the related expense item at that time. Cash Payments to Customers: UTC Climate, Controls & Security customarily offers its customers incentives to purchase products to ensure an adequate supply of its products in the distribution channels. The principal incentive program provides reimbursements to distributors for offering promotional pricing for our products. We account for incentive payments made as a reduction in sales. In our aerospace businesses, we may make participation payments to certain customers to secure certain contractual rights. To the extent these rights are incremental and are supported by the incremental cash flows obtained, they are capitalized as intangible assets. Otherwise, such payments are expensed. We classify the subsequent amortization of the capitalized acquired intangible assets from our customers as a reduction in sales. Contractually stated prices in arrangements with our customers that include the acquisition of intangible rights within the scope of the Intangibles - Goodwill and Other Topic of the FASB ASC and deliverables within the scope of the Revenue Recognition Topic of the FASB ASC are not presumed to be representative of fair value for determining the amounts to allocate to each element of an arrangement. Accounting Standards Update (ASU) 2014-09, Revenue from Contracts with Customers: In May 2014, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update (ASU) 2014-09, Revenue from Contracts with Customers. In 2015 and 2016, the FASB issued various updates to this ASU as follows:
• | ASU 2015-14, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606): Deferral of the Effective Date - delays the effective date of ASU 2014-09 by one year.
• | ASU 2016-08, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606), Principal versus Agent Considerations (Reporting Revenue Gross versus Net) - clarifies how an entity should identify the unit of accounting (i.e. the specified good or service) for the principal versus agent evaluation and how it should apply the control principle to certain types of arrangements.
• | ASU 2016-10, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606), Identifying Performance Obligations and Licensing - clarifies the guidance surrounding licensing arrangements and the identification of performance obligations.
• | ASU 2016-12, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606), Narrow-Scope Improvements and Practical Expedients - addresses implementation issues raised by stakeholders concerning collectability, noncash consideration, presentation of sales tax, and transition.
• | ASU 2016-20, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606), Technical Corrections and Improvements - addresses loan guarantee fees, impairment testing of contract costs, provisions for losses on certain contracts, and various disclosures.
ASU 2014-09 and its related amendments (collectively, the New Revenue Standard) are effective for reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017, and interim periods therein. In accordance with the standard, we have adopted the New Revenue Standard effective January 1, 2018 and elected the modified retrospective approach with the cumulative effect of adoption recognized through retained earnings at the date of adoption. The New Revenue Standard will change the revenue recognition practices for a number of revenue streams across our businesses, although the most significant impacts will be concentrated within our aerospace units. Several businesses, which currently account for revenue on an output units of delivery basis will be required to use an input method of an “over time” model as they meet one or more of the mandatory criteria established in the New Revenue Standard. Revenue will now be recognized based on percentage-of-completion for repair contracts within Otis and UTC Climate, Controls & Security; certain U.S. Government aerospace contracts; and aerospace aftermarket service work. For these businesses, unrecognized sales and operating profits related to the satisfied portion of the performance obligations of contracts in process as of the date of adoption will be recorded through retained earnings. While we are still finalizing our retained earnings impact evaluation, the ongoing effect of recognizing revenue on an input method of an over time model within these businesses is not expected to be material. In addition to the foregoing, our aerospace businesses will also incur changes related to the timing of manufacturing cost recognition and certain engineering and development costs. In most circumstances, our commercial aerospace businesses will identify the performance obligation, or the unit of accounting, as the individual original equipment (OEM) unit; revenues and costs to manufacture each unit will be recognized upon OEM unit delivery. Generally under current practice, the unit of accounting is the contract, and early-contract OEM unit costs in excess of the average expected over the contract are capitalized and amortized over lower-cost units later in the contract. With the adoption of the New Revenue Standard, deferred unit costs in excess of the contract average of $438 million as of December 31, 2017 will be eliminated through retained earnings and will not be amortized into future earnings. With regard to costs incurred for the engineering and development of aerospace products under contract with customers, we generally expense as incurred unless there is a contractually guaranteed right of recovery. The New Revenue Standard requires product engineering and development costs to be capitalized as contract fulfillment costs, to the extent recoverable from the associated contract margin, and subsequently amortized as the OEM products are delivered to the customer. We are still finalizing the calculation of the impact of this change to our adoption-date retained earnings. The ongoing impact will not change the total amount of cost incurred, but will change the timing of recognition of that cost. Prior to the New Revenue Standard, any customer funding received for such development efforts was recognized when earned, with the corresponding costs recognized as cost of sales. The New Revenue Standard requires customer funding of OEM product engineering and development to be deferred and recognized as revenue as the OEM products are delivered to the customer. For contracts that are open as of the adoption date, previously recognized customer funding will be established as a contract liability as deferred income. We are still finalizing the calculation of the impact of this change to our adoption-date retained earnings. We expect the New Revenue Standard will have an immaterial impact on our 2018 net income. Adoption of the New Revenue Standard will result in income statement classification changes between Revenues, Cost of sales, Research & development, and Other income. The New Revenue Standard will also result in the establishment of Contract asset and Contract liability balance sheet accounts, and in the reclassification to these new accounts from Accounts receivable; Inventories and contracts in progress, net; and Accrued liabilities. The New Revenue Standard requires ongoing incremental disclosures including explanation of significant changes in the Contract asset and Contract liability balances, and disaggregation of revenue into categories that depict how the nature, amount, timing and uncertainty of revenue and cash flows are affected by economic factors. The New Revenue Standard also requires disclosure of remaining performance obligations, which is a concept that is similar to that of backlog, which we report in Item I, Part I of our Form 10-K. Beginning in 2018, we will align our definition of backlog with that of remaining performance obligations under the New Revenue Standard. We have historically included in backlog engine orders from airlines for which such purchase orders have not yet been received. Effective with the adoption of the New Revenue Standard, we will no longer include in backlog airline engine orders for which we have not yet received the associated firm manufacturing purchase order. Excluding these engine orders is expected to result in a significant decline in reported backlog in 2018. Research and Development. Research and development costs not specifically covered by contracts and those related to the company sponsored share of research and development activity in connection with cost-sharing arrangements are charged to expense as incurred. Government research and development support, not associated with specific contracts, is recorded as a reduction to research and development expense in the period earned. See Note 8 for a discussion of amendments of certain government research and development support arrangements concluded in December 2015 between P&WC and the Canadian government. Research and development costs incurred under contracts with customers are included as a contract cost and reported as a component of cost of products sold when revenue from such contracts is recognized. Research and development costs in excess of contractual consideration are expensed as incurred. Foreign Exchange. We conduct business in many different currencies and, accordingly, are subject to the inherent risks associated with foreign exchange rate movements. The financial position and results of operations of substantially all of our foreign subsidiaries are measured using the local currency as the functional currency. Foreign currency denominated assets and liabilities are translated into U.S. Dollars at the exchange rates existing at the respective balance sheet dates, and income and expense items are translated at the average exchange rates during the respective periods. The aggregate effects of translating the balance sheets of these subsidiaries are deferred as a separate component of shareowners' equity. Derivatives and Hedging Activity. We have used derivative instruments, including swaps, forward contracts and options, to help manage certain foreign currency, interest rate and commodity price exposures. Derivative instruments are viewed as risk management tools by us and are not used for trading or speculative purposes. By their nature, all financial instruments involve market and credit risks. We enter into derivative and other financial instruments with major investment grade financial institutions and have policies to monitor the credit risk of those counterparties. We limit counterparty exposure and concentration of risk by diversifying counterparties. While there can be no assurance, we do not anticipate any material non-performance by any of these counterparties. We enter into transactions that are subject to enforceable master netting arrangements or similar agreements with various counterparties. However, we have not elected to offset multiple contracts with a single counterparty and, as a result, the fair value of the derivative instruments in a loss position is not offset against the fair value of derivative instruments in a gain position. Derivatives used for hedging purposes may be designated and effective as a hedge of the identified risk exposure at the inception of the contract. All derivative instruments are recorded on the balance sheet at fair value. Derivatives used to hedge foreign-currency denominated balance sheet items are reported directly in earnings along with offsetting transaction gains and losses on the items being hedged. Derivatives used to hedge forecasted cash flows associated with foreign currency commitments or forecasted commodity purchases may be accounted for as cash flow hedges, as deemed appropriate. Gains and losses on derivatives designated as cash flow hedges are recorded in other comprehensive income and reclassified to earnings as a component of product sales or expenses, as applicable, when the hedged transaction occurs. To the extent that a previously designated hedging transaction is no longer an effective hedge, any ineffectiveness measured in the hedging relationship is recorded currently in earnings in the period it occurs. As discussed in Note 14, at December 31, 2017 we have approximately €3.7 billion of Euro-denominated long-term debt, which qualify as a net investment hedge against our investments in European businesses. We had no Euro-denominated commercial paper borrowings outstanding at December 31, 2017. To the extent the hedge accounting criteria are not met, the foreign currency forward contracts are utilized as economic hedges and changes in the fair value of these contracts are recorded currently in earnings in the period in which they occur. Additional information pertaining to foreign currency forward contracts and net investment hedging is included in Note 14. Environmental. Environmental investigatory, remediation, operating and maintenance costs are accrued when it is probable that a liability has been incurred and the amount can be reasonably estimated. The most likely cost to be incurred is accrued based on an evaluation of currently available facts with respect to each individual site, including existing technology, current laws and regulations and prior remediation experience. Where no amount within a range of estimates is more likely, the minimum is accrued. For sites with multiple responsible parties, we consider our likely proportionate share of the anticipated remediation costs and the ability of the other parties to fulfill their obligations in establishing a provision for those costs. Liabilities with fixed or reliably determinable future cash payments are discounted. Accrued environmental liabilities are not reduced by potential insurance reimbursements. See Note 18 for additional details on the environmental remediation activities. Pension and Postretirement Obligations. Guidance under the Compensation - Retirement Benefits Topic of the FASB ASC requires balance sheet recognition of the overfunded or underfunded status of pension and postretirement benefit plans. Under this guidance, actuarial gains and losses, prior service costs or credits, and any remaining transition assets or obligations that have not been recognized under previous accounting standards must be recognized in other comprehensive income, net of tax effects, until they are amortized as a component of net periodic benefit cost. In March 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-07, Compensation—Retirement Benefits (Topic 715), Improving the Presentation of Net Periodic Pension Cost and Net Periodic Postretirement Benefit Cost. This ASU requires an employer to report the service cost component of net periodic pension benefit cost in the same line item or items as other compensation costs arising from services rendered by the pertinent employees during the period, with other cost components presented separately from the service cost component and outside of income from operations. This ASU also allows only the service cost component of net periodic pension benefit cost to be eligible for capitalization when applicable. The provisions of this ASU are effective for years beginning after December 15, 2017, and we adopted the new standard effective January 1, 2018. Provisions related to presentation of the service cost components versus other cost components must be applied retrospectively, while provisions related to service cost component eligibility for capitalization must be applied prospectively. This ASU primarily impacts the presentation of net periodic pension cost/benefit and therefore we do not expect this ASU to have a material impact on net income; however, it will result in changes to reported operating profit. Product Performance Obligations. We extend performance and operating cost guarantees beyond our normal service and warranty policies for extended periods on some of our products, particularly commercial aircraft engines. Liability under such guarantees is based upon future product performance and durability. We accrue for such costs that are probable and can be reasonably estimated. In addition, we incur discretionary costs to service our products in connection with product performance issues. The costs associated with these product performance and operating cost guarantees require estimates over the full terms of the agreements, and require management to consider factors such as the extent of future maintenance requirements and the future cost of material and labor to perform the services. These cost estimates are largely based upon historical experience. See Note 17 for further discussion. Collaborative Arrangements. In view of the risks and costs associated with developing new engines, Pratt & Whitney has entered into certain collaboration arrangements in which sales, costs and risks are shared. Sales generated from engine programs, spare parts, and aftermarket business under collaboration arrangements are recorded as earned in our financial statements. Amounts attributable to our collaborators for their share of sales are recorded as an expense in our financial statements based upon the terms and nature of the arrangement. Costs associated with engine programs under collaborative arrangements are expensed as incurred. Under these arrangements, collaborators contribute their program share of engine parts, incur their own production costs and make certain payments to Pratt & Whitney for shared or joint program costs. The reimbursement of the collaborators' share of program costs is recorded as a reduction of the related expense item at that time. As of December 31, 2017, the collaborators' interests in all commercial engine programs ranged from 14% to 50%, inclusive of a portion of Pratt & Whitney's interests held by other participants. Pratt & Whitney is the principal participant in all existing collaborative arrangements, with the exception of the Engine Alliance (EA), a joint venture with GE Aviation, which markets and manufactures the GP7000 engine for the Airbus A380 aircraft. There are no individually significant collaborative arrangements and none of the collaborators exceed a 31% share in an individual program. The following table illustrates the income statement classification and amounts attributable to transactions arising from the collaborative arrangements between participants for each period presented. Selling, general and administrative amounts for 2016 and 2015 have been revised to present these amounts on a basis consistent with 2017 presentation.
(dollars in millions) | 2017 |  | 2016 |  | 2015
Collaborator share of sales: |  |  |  |  |
Cost of products sold | $ | 1,789 |  |  | $ | 1,700 |  |  | $ | 1,547 |
Cost of services sold | 929 |  |  | 675 |  |  | 652 |
Collaborator share of program costs (reimbursement of expenses incurred): |  |  |  |  |
Cost of products sold | (143 | ) |  | (108 | ) |  | (104 | )
Research and development | (190 | ) |  | (184 | ) |  | (248 | )
Selling, general and administrative | (74 | ) |  | (57 | ) |  | (53 | )
Accounting Pronouncements. In October 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-16, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Intra-Entity Transfers of Assets Other Than Inventory. This ASU requires the income tax consequences of an intra-entity transfer of an asset, other than inventory, to be recognized when the transfer occurs. Two common examples of assets included in the scope of this update are intellectual property and property, plant, and equipment. The provisions of this ASU are effective for years beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted. We do not expect this ASU to have a significant impact on our financial statements or disclosures. We adopted the new standard effective January 1, 2018. In February 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016- 02, Leases (Topic 842). The new standard establishes a right-of-use (ROU) model that requires a lessee to record a ROU asset and a lease liability on the balance sheet for all leases with terms longer than 12 months. Leases will be classified as either finance or operating, with classification affecting the pattern of expense recognition in the Consolidated Statement of Operations. In addition, this standard requires a lessor to classify leases as either sales-type, finance or operating. A lease will be treated as a sale if it transfers all of the risks and rewards, as well as control of the underlying asset, to the lessee. If risks and rewards are conveyed without the transfer of control, the lease is treated as financing. If the lessor doesn’t convey risks and rewards or control, the lease is treated as operating. The new standard is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2018, including interim periods within those fiscal years. A modified retrospective transition approach is required for lessees for capital and operating leases and lessors for sales-type, direct financing, and operating leases existing at, or entered into after, the beginning of the earliest comparative period presented in the financial statements, with certain practical expedients available. In November 2017, the FASB announced a decision to offer an additional practical expedient related to the transition to the new lease accounting standard which allows for its prospective adoption. The FASB is expected to formally communicate this new practical expedient through an Accounting Standards Update to be released in early 2018. While we are still evaluating the impact of our pending adoption of the new standard on our consolidated financial statements, we expect that upon adoption we will recognize ROU assets and lease liabilities and that the amounts could be material. We do not expect the ASU to have a material impact on our cash flows or results of operations. In January 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-01, Business Combinations (Topic 805): Clarifying the Definition of a Business. This ASU provides a new framework that will assist in the evaluation of whether business combination transactions should be accounted for as an acquisition of a business or as a group of assets, and specifies the minimum required inputs and processes necessary to be a business. The provisions of this ASU are effective for years beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted. We adopted the new standard effective January 1, 2018. In May 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-09, Compensation—Stock Compensation (Topic 718): Scope of Modification Accounting. This ASU provides that an entity should account for the effects of a modification unless the fair value, the vesting conditions of the modified award and the classification of the modified award (equity or liability instrument) are the same as the original award immediately before the modification. The provisions of this ASU are effective for years beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted. We do not expect this ASU to have a significant impact on our financial statements or disclosures. We adopted the new standard effective January 1, 2018. In August 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-12, Derivatives and Hedging (Topic 815): Targeted Improvements to Accounting for Hedging Activities. This ASU will make more financial and nonfinancial hedging strategies eligible for hedge accounting. It also amends the presentation and disclosure requirements and changes how companies assess effectiveness. It is intended to more closely align hedge accounting with a company’s risk management strategies, simplify the application of hedge accounting, and increase transparency as to the scope and results of hedging programs. The provisions of this ASU are effective for years beginning after December 15, 2018, with early adoption permitted for any interim period after issuance of the ASU. We do not expect this ASU to have a significant impact on our results of operations or financial position. We adopted the new standard effective January 1, 2018.

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