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Summary of significant accounting policies | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2023
Organization, Consolidation and Presentation of Financial Statements [Abstract] |
Summary of significant accounting policies | Summary of significant accounting policies a) Basis of presentation Chubb Limited is a holding company incorporated in Zurich, Switzerland. Chubb Limited, through its subsidiaries, provides a broad range of insurance and reinsurance products to insureds worldwide. Our results are reported through the following business segments: North America Commercial P&C Insurance, North America Personal P&C Insurance, North America Agricultural Insurance, Overseas General Insurance, Global Reinsurance, and Life Insurance. Refer to Note 19 for additional information. The accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements, which include the accounts of Chubb Limited and its subsidiaries (collectively, Chubb, we, us, or our), over which Chubb exercises control, including Huatai Group, our majority-owned subsidiary, and minority-owned entities such as variable interest entities (VIEs) in which Chubb is considered the primary beneficiary. Noncontrolling interests on the consolidated financial statements represent the portion of majority-owned subsidiaries and VIEs in which we do not have direct equity ownership. These Consolidated Financial Statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (U.S. GAAP) and, in the opinion of management, reflect all adjustments necessary for a fair statement of the results and financial position for such periods. All significant intercompany accounts and transactions, including internal reinsurance transactions, have been eliminated. On July 1, 2023, Chubb discontinued equity method accounting for its investment in Huatai Group upon obtaining a controlling interest and applied consolidation accounting. Therefore, effective July 1, 2023, business activity for, and the financial position of, Huatai Group is reported at 100 percent on the Consolidated Financial Statements. At December 31, 2023, our aggregate ownership interest in Huatai Group was approximately 76.5 percent. Refer to Note 2 for additional information on the acquisition of Huatai Group. The relevant amounts attributable to shareholders other than Chubb are reflected in the Consolidated Financial Statements under the captions Noncontrolling interests, Net income (loss) attributable to noncontrolling interests, and Comprehensive income (loss) attributable to noncontrolling interests. The preparation of financial statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements, and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Amounts included in the Consolidated Financial Statements reflect our best estimates and assumptions; actual amounts could differ materially from these estimates. Chubb's principal estimates include: •unpaid loss and loss expense reserves, including long-tail asbestos and environmental (A&E) reserves and non-A&E casualty exposures; •future policy benefits reserves; •the valuation of value of business acquired (VOBA); •the assessment of risk transfer for certain structured insurance and reinsurance contracts; •reinsurance recoverable, including a valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance; •the valuation of the investment portfolio and assessment of valuation allowance for expected credit losses; •the valuation of deferred income taxes; •the valuation and amortization of purchased intangibles; and •the assessment of goodwill for impairment. b) Premiums Premiums are generally recorded as written upon inception of the policy. For multi-year policies for which premiums written are payable in annual installments, only the current annual premium is included as written at policy inception due to the ability of the insured/reinsured to commute or cancel coverage within the policy term. The remaining annual premiums are recorded as written at each successive anniversary date within the multi-year term. For property and casualty (P&C) insurance and reinsurance products, premiums written are primarily earned on a pro-rata basis over the policy terms to which they relate. Unearned premiums represent the portion of premiums written applicable to the unexpired portion of the policies in force. For retrospectively-rated policies, written premiums are adjusted to reflect expected ultimate premiums consistent with changes to incurred losses, or other measures of exposure as stated in the policy, and earned over the policy coverage period. Mandatory reinstatement premiums assessed on reinsurance policies are earned in the period of the loss event that gave rise to the reinstatement premiums. All remaining unearned premiums are recognized over the remaining coverage period. Premiums from long-duration contracts such as certain traditional term life, whole life, endowment, and long-duration personal accident and health (A&H) policies are generally recognized as revenue when due from policyholders. Traditional life policies include those contracts with fixed and guaranteed premiums and benefits. Benefits and expenses are recognized in relation to insurance in force resulting in the recognition of profit over the life of the contracts. Retroactive loss portfolio transfer (LPT) contracts in which the insured loss events occurred prior to contract inception are evaluated to determine whether they meet criteria for reinsurance accounting. If reinsurance accounting is appropriate, written premiums are fully earned and corresponding losses and loss expenses recognized at contract inception. These contracts can cause significant variances in gross premiums written, net premiums written, net premiums earned, and net incurred losses in the years in which they are written. Reinsurance contracts sold not meeting the criteria for reinsurance accounting are recorded using the deposit method. Reinsurance premiums assumed are based on information provided by ceding companies supplemented by our own estimates of premium when we have not received ceding company reports. Estimates are reviewed and adjustments are recorded in the period in which they are determined. Premiums are earned over the coverage terms of the related reinsurance contracts and range from one to three years. c) Deferred policy acquisition costs (DAC) Policy acquisition costs consist of commissions (direct and ceded), premium taxes, and certain underwriting costs related directly to the successful acquisition of new or renewal insurance contracts. Amortization is recorded in Policy acquisition costs in the Consolidated statements of operations. Short-duration contracts Policy acquisition costs are amortized ratably over the period the related premiums are earned. Policy acquisition costs are reviewed to determine if they are recoverable from future income including investment income. Unrecoverable policy acquisition costs are expensed in the period identified. Long-duration contracts Policy acquisition costs are grouped by contract type and issue year into cohorts consistent with the groupings used in estimating the associated liability and are expensed on a constant level basis over the expected term of the related contracts to approximate straight-line amortization at the contract level. The constant level basis used for amortization is the insurance in-force and is projected using the same assumptions used in estimating the liability for future policy benefits. If those projected assumptions change in future periods, they will be reflected in the cohort level amortization basis at that time. Unexpected changes in the in-force portfolio, due to variances in mortality and lapse experience, are recognized over the contract term. Changes in future mortality and lapse assumptions are also recognized prospectively over the remaining expected contract term. Advertising costs are expensed as incurred except for direct-response campaigns that qualify for cost deferral. Qualified expenses include individual direct-response marketing campaigns where we can demonstrate the campaigns have specifically resulted in incremental sales to customers and such sales have probable future economic benefits. Any costs directly related to the marketing campaigns are deferred, included with other policy acquisition costs, and expensed as a component of Policy acquisition costs using the same amortization basis. d) Value of business acquired (VOBA) As part of business combination accounting, a VOBA intangible asset is established upon the acquisition of blocks of long-duration contracts. This intangible represents the present value of estimated net cash flows for the in-force contracts as of the acquisition date. VOBA is amortized as a component of Policy acquisition costs in the Consolidated statements of operations in relation to the profit emergence of the underlying acquired contracts. The valuation of VOBA is based on many factors including mortality, morbidity, persistency, investment yields, expenses, and discount rate. The VOBA intangible is tested for recoverability at least annually using a premium deficiency test. Unrecoverable VOBA is expensed in the period identified. e) Reinsurance Chubb assumes and cedes reinsurance with other insurance companies to provide greater diversification of business and minimize the net loss potential arising from large risks. Ceded reinsurance contracts do not relieve Chubb of its primary obligation to policyholders. For both ceded and assumed reinsurance, risk transfer requirements must be met in order to account for a contract as reinsurance, principally resulting in the recognition of cash flows under the contract as premiums and losses. To meet risk transfer requirements, a reinsurance contract must include insurance risk, consisting of both underwriting and timing risk, and a reasonable possibility of a significant loss for the assuming entity. To assess risk transfer for certain contracts, Chubb generally develops expected discounted cash flow analyses at contract inception. Deposit accounting is used for contracts that do not meet risk transfer requirements. Reinsurance recoverable includes balances due from reinsurance companies for paid and unpaid losses and loss expenses and future policy benefits that will be recovered from reinsurers, based on contracts in force. The method for determining the reinsurance recoverable on unpaid losses and loss expenses incurred but not reported (IBNR) involves actuarial estimates consistent with those used to establish the associated liability for unpaid losses and loss expenses as well as a determination of Chubb's ability to cede unpaid losses and loss expenses under the terms of the reinsurance agreement. Reinsurance recoverable is presented net of a valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance determined based upon a review of the financial condition of reinsurers and other factors. The valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance is based on an estimate of the reinsurance recoverable balance that will ultimately be unrecoverable due to reinsurer insolvency, a contractual dispute, or any other reason. The valuation of this allowance includes several judgments including certain aspects of the allocation of reinsurance recoverable on IBNR claims by reinsurer and a default analysis to estimate uncollectible reinsurance. The primary components of the default analysis are reinsurance recoverable balances by reinsurer, net of collateral, and default factors used to determine the portion of a reinsurer's balance deemed uncollectible. The definition of collateral for this purpose requires some judgment and is generally limited to assets held in a Chubb-only beneficiary trust, letters of credit, and liabilities held with the same legal entity for which Chubb believes there is a contractual right of offset. The determination of the default factor is principally based on the financial strength rating of the reinsurer. Default factors require considerable judgment and are determined using the current financial strength rating, or rating equivalent, of each reinsurer as well as other key considerations and assumptions. Changes in the valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance recoverables are recorded in Losses and loss expenses in the Consolidated statements of operations. The more significant considerations to calculate the valuation allowance include, but are not necessarily limited to, the following: •For reinsurers that maintain a financial strength rating from a major rating agency, and for which recoverable balances are considered representative of the larger population (i.e., default probabilities are consistent with similarly rated reinsurers and payment durations conform to averages), the financial rating is based on a published source and the default factor is based on published default statistics of a major rating agency applicable to the reinsurer's particular rating class. When a recoverable is expected to be paid in a brief period of time by a highly rated reinsurer, such as certain property catastrophe claims, a default factor may not be applied; •For balances recoverable from reinsurers that are both unrated by a major rating agency and for which management is unable to determine a credible rating equivalent based on a parent, affiliate, or peer company, we determine a rating equivalent based on an analysis of the reinsurer that considers an assessment of the creditworthiness of the particular entity, industry benchmarks, or other factors as considered appropriate. We then apply the applicable default factor for that rating class. For balances recoverable from unrated reinsurers for which the ceded reserve is below a certain threshold, we generally apply a default factor of 34 percent, consistent with published statistics of a major rating agency; •For balances recoverable from reinsurers that are either insolvent or under regulatory supervision, we establish a default factor and resulting valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance based on reinsurer-specific facts and circumstances. Upon initial notification of an insolvency, we generally recognize an expense for a substantial portion of all balances outstanding, net of collateral, through a combination of write-offs of recoverable balances and increases to the valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance. When regulatory action is taken on a reinsurer, we generally recognize a default factor by estimating an expected recovery on all balances outstanding, net of collateral. When sufficient credible information becomes available, we adjust the valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance by establishing a default factor pursuant to information received; and •For other recoverables, management determines the valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance based on the specific facts and circumstances. The methods used to determine the reinsurance recoverable balance and related valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance are regularly reviewed and updated, and any resulting adjustments are reflected in earnings in the period identified. The methods used to determine the valuation allowance for uncollectible high deductible recoverable amounts and valuation allowance for insurance and reinsurance balances receivable are similar to the processes used to determine the valuation allowance for uncollectible reinsurance recoverable. For information on high deductible policies, refer to section k) Unpaid losses and loss expenses, below. Prepaid reinsurance premiums represent the portion of premiums ceded to reinsurers applicable to the unexpired coverage terms of the reinsurance contracts in-force. f) Investments Fixed maturities, equity securities, and short-term investments Fixed maturities are classified as available-for-sale (AFS) and are reported at fair value, net of a valuation allowance for credit losses, with changes in fair value recorded as a separate component of AOCI in Shareholders' equity. Prior to June 2023, we classified securities for which we had the ability and intent to hold to maturity or redemption as held to maturity (HTM), and reported these securities at amortized cost, net of a valuation allowance for credit losses. In June 2023, we determined that we no longer had the intent to hold securities in HTM portfolio until maturity. As a result, our entire HTM portfolio was transferred to the AFS portfolio. Refer to Note 3 a) for additional information. Equity securities are reported at fair value with changes in fair value recorded in Net realized gains (losses) on the Consolidated statements of operations. Short-term investments comprise securities due to mature within one year of the date of purchase and are recorded at fair value which typically approximates cost. Interest, dividend income, and amortization of fixed maturity market premiums and discounts, related to these securities are recorded in Net investment income, net of investment management and custody fees, in the Consolidated statements of operations. Realized gains or losses on sales of investments are determined on a first-in, first-out basis. For mortgage-backed securities and any other holdings for which there is a prepayment risk, prepayment assumptions are evaluated and revised as necessary. Any adjustments required due to the resultant change in effective yields and maturities are recognized prospectively. Prepayment fees or call premiums that are only payable when a security is called prior to its maturity are earned when received and reflected in Net investment income. Valuation allowance for fixed income securities Management evaluates expected credit losses (ECL) for AFS securities when fair value is below amortized cost. AFS securities are evaluated for potential credit loss on an individual security level but the evaluation may use assumptions consistent with expectations of credit losses for a group of similar securities. If management has the intent to sell or will be required to sell the security before recovery, the entire impairment loss will be recorded through income to Net realized gains and losses. If management does not have the intent to sell or will not be required to sell the security before recovery, an allowance for credit losses is established and is recorded through income to Net realized gains and losses, and the non-credit loss portion is recorded through other comprehensive income. Examples of criteria that are collectively evaluated to determine if a credit loss has occurred include the following: •The extent to which the fair value is less than amortized cost; •Adverse conditions related to the security, industry, or geographic area; •Downgrades in the security's credit rating by a rating agency; and •Failure of the issuer to make scheduled principal or interest payments. AFS securities that meet any one of the criteria included above will be subject to a discounted cash flow analysis by comparing the present value of expected future cash flows with the amortized cost basis. Projected cash flows are driven primarily by assumptions regarding probability of default and the timing and amount of recoveries associated with defaults. Chubb developed the projected cash flows using market data, issuer-specific information, and credit ratings. In combination with contractual cash flows and the use of historical default and recovery data by Moody's Investors Service (Moody's) rating category we generate expected cash flows using the average cumulative issuer-weighted global default rates by letter rating. If the present value of expected future cash flows is less than the amortized cost, a credit loss exists and an allowance for credit losses will be recognized. If the present value of expected future cash flows is equal to or greater than the amortized cost basis, management will conclude an expected credit loss does not exist. Management reviews credit losses and the valuation allowance for expected credit losses each quarter. When all or a portion of a fixed maturity security is identified to be uncollectible and written off, the valuation allowance for expected credit losses is reduced. In general, a security is considered uncollectible no later than when all efforts to collect contractual cash flows have been exhausted. Below are considerations for when a security may be deemed uncollectible: •We have sufficient information to determine that the issuer of the security is insolvent; •We receive notice that the issuer of the security has filed for bankruptcy, and the collectability is expected to be adversely impacted by the bankruptcy; •The issuer of a security has violated multiple debt covenants; •Amounts have been past due for a specified period of time with no response from the issuer; •A significant deterioration in the value of the collateral has occurred; and •We have received correspondence from the issuer of the security indicating that it doesn’t intend to pay the contractual principal and interest. Prior to the transfer of our entire HTM portfolio to the AFS portfolio, as noted above, HTM securities were evaluated for potential credit loss on a collective pool basis quarterly. Chubb pooled HTM securities and calculated the current expected credit loss for each pool using Moody's corporate bond default average, corporate bond recovery rate, and an economic cycle multiplier based on the leading economic index adjusted for a forward-looking economic outlook. We elected to not measure an allowance for accrued investment income as uncollectible balances are written off in a timely manner, typically 30 to 45 days after uncollected balances are due. Private debt held-for-investment Private debt held-for-investment relates principally to investments in the funding of public and private projects that are mostly infrastructure related and were acquired as part of Huatai’s investment portfolio upon consolidation. They have stated interest rates and maturity dates with fixed or determinable payments. Private debt held-for-investment are carried at amortized cost, net of a valuation allowance for credit losses. Management evaluates current expected credit losses (CECL) for all Private debt held-for-investment each quarter on a collective pool basis using S&P's corporate bond default average, corporate bond recovery rate, and an economic cycle multiplier. Interest income is recorded when earned within Net investment income on the Consolidated statements of operations. Private equities Private equities principally consist of Investment funds, limited partnerships, and partially owned investment companies. Investment funds and limited partnerships Investment funds, limited partnerships, and all other investments over which Chubb cannot exercise significant influence, generally, when we own less than three percent of the investee's shares, are accounted for as follows: •Income and expenses from these funds are reported within Net investment income. •These funds are carried at net asset value, which approximates fair value with changes in fair value recorded in Net realized gains (losses) on the Consolidated statements of operations. Refer to Note 4 for a further discussion on net asset value. •As a result of the timing of the receipt of valuation data from the investment managers, these investments are generally reported on a three-month lag. •Sales of these investments are reported within Net realized gains (losses). Partially-owned investment companies Partially-owned investment companies are limited partnerships where our ownership interest is in excess of three percent are accounted for under the equity method because Chubb exerts significant influence. These investments apply investment company accounting to determine operating results, and Chubb retains the investment company accounting in applying the equity method. •This means that investment income, realized gains or losses, and unrealized gains or losses are included in the portion of equity earnings reflected in Other (income) expense. •As a result of the timing of the receipt of valuation data from the investment managers, these investments are generally reported on a three-month lag. Other investments •Huatai’s asset management businesses create investment entities known as consolidated investment products which include mutual funds with primary holdings in fixed maturities. These securities are reported at fair value with changes in fair value reported through the Consolidated statements of operations within Net realized gains (losses) as required under investment company accounting standards. •Policy loans are carried at outstanding balance and interest income is reflected in Net investment income. •Life insurance policies are carried at policy cash surrender value and income is reflected in Other (income) expense. •Non-qualified separate account assets are supported by assets that do not qualify for separate accounting reporting under U.S. GAAP and are carried at fair value. Unrealized gains and losses on non-qualified separate account assets are reflected in Other (income) expense. Investments in partially-owned insurance companies Investments in partially-owned insurance companies primarily represent direct investments in which Chubb has significant influence and as such, meet the requirements for equity method accounting. Generally, we own twenty percent or more of the investee’s shares. We report our share of the net income or loss of the partially-owned insurance companies in Other (income) expense. Securities lending program Chubb participates in a securities lending program operated by a third-party banking institution whereby certain assets are loaned to qualified borrowers and from which we earn an incremental return which is recorded within Net investment income in the Consolidated statements of operations. Borrowers provide collateral, in the form of either cash or approved securities, at a minimum of 102 percent of the fair value of the loaned securities. Each security loan is deemed to be an overnight transaction. Cash collateral is invested in a collateral pool which is managed by the banking institution. The collateral pool is subject to written investment guidelines with key objectives which include the safeguard of principal and adequate liquidity to meet anticipated redemptions. The fair value of the loaned securities is monitored on a daily basis, with additional collateral obtained or refunded as the fair value of the loaned securities changes. The fair value of the securities on loan is included in Fixed maturities available-for-sale and Equity securities in the Consolidated balance sheets. The collateral is held by the third-party banking institution, and the collateral can only be accessed in the event that the institution borrowing the securities is in default under the lending agreement. As a result of these restrictions, we consider our securities lending activities to be non-cash investing and financing activities. An indemnification agreement with the lending agent protects us in the event a borrower becomes insolvent or fails to return any of the securities on loan. The securities lending collateral is reported as a separate line in the Consolidated balance sheets with a related liability reflecting our obligation to return the collateral plus interest. Repurchase agreements Similar to securities lending arrangements, securities sold under repurchase agreements, whereby Chubb sells securities and repurchases them at a future date for a predetermined price, are accounted for as collateralized investments and borrowings and are recorded at the contractual repurchase amounts plus accrued interest. Assets to be repurchased are the same or substantially the same as the assets transferred, and the transferor, through right of substitution, maintains the right and ability to redeem the collateral on short notice. The fair value of the underlying securities is included in fixed maturities. In contrast to securities lending programs, the use of cash received is not restricted. We report the obligation to return the cash as Repurchase agreements in the Consolidated balance sheets and record the fees under these repurchase agreements within Interest expense on the Consolidated statements of operations. Refer to Note 4 for a discussion on the determination of fair value for Chubb's various investment securities. g) Consolidation of Variable interest entities (VIEs) Chubb consolidates entities in which it has a controlling interest or is a primary beneficiary of a VIE. Huatai's asset management businesses create investment entities known as consolidated investment products which include mutual funds with primary holdings in fixed maturities. While many investors may not be related parties, Huatai invests in these funds at various ownership percentages. We consolidate the VIEs if we are the primary beneficiary, which is generally when we hold an economic interest of 10 percent or more. The consolidation of VIEs requires us to record 100 percent of both the underlying assets and liabilities of the mutual funds within the Consolidated balance sheets as well as the profit and losses within the Consolidated statements of operations. The relevant amounts attributable to investors other than Chubb are reflected as Noncontrolling interests. Purchases and sales of investments by the consolidated VIEs are reported as operating activities on the Statements of Cash Flows. Where Huatai's ownership in these consolidated investment products is less than 10 percent, we generally would not expect to be the primary beneficiary of these VIEs and would not consolidate. Our economic risk with respect to each investment in a consolidated investment product is limited to our equity ownership and any uncollected management and performance fees. Refer to Note 3 i) for additional information. h) Derivative instruments Derivative instruments are carried at fair value in the Consolidated balance sheets in either Accounts payable, accrued expenses, and other liabilities or Other assets. We participate in these derivative instruments primarily to mitigate financial risks and manage certain investment portfolio risks and exposures, including assets and liabilities denominated in foreign currencies. We use derivative instruments including futures, options, swaps, and foreign currency forward contracts. Refer to Note 14 for additional information. Changes in fair value of derivatives not designated as hedging instruments are included in Net realized gains (losses) and changes in fair value of futures contracts on equities related to our variable annuity reinsurance business are included in Market risk benefits gains (losses) in the Consolidated statements of operations. We also invest in certain derivative instruments that are designated as hedging instruments and qualify for hedge accounting. These derivatives designated as hedging instruments must be highly effective in mitigating the designated changes in fair value or cash flows of the hedged item. We assess at the hedge's inception, and continue to qualitatively assess on a quarterly basis, whether the derivatives that are used in hedging transactions have been and are expected to be highly effective in offsetting changes in the hedged items. Derivatives designated as hedging instruments include cross-currency swaps designated as fair value hedges for foreign currency exposure associated with portions of our euro denominated debt and net investment hedges for foreign currency exposure in the net investments of certain foreign subsidiaries. Refer to Note 14 for additional information. Changes in fair value of net investment hedges are recorded in Cumulative translation adjustments (CTA) within OCI. Changes in fair value of fair value hedges that principally offset the foreign currency remeasurement on the hedged debt is recorded within Net realized gains (losses) on the Consolidated st atement of operations with the remaining change in fair value recorded in Other, within OCI. i) Cash We have agreements with a third-party bank provider which implemented two international multi-currency notional cash pooling programs. In each program, participating Chubb entities establish deposit accounts in different currencies with the bank provider and each day the credit or debit balances in every account are notionally translated into a single currency (U.S. dollars) and then notionally pooled. The bank extends overdraft credit to any participating Chubb entity as needed, provided that the overall notionally-pooled balance of all accounts in each pool at the end of each day is at least zero. Actual cash balances are not physically converted and are not commingled between legal entities. Any overdraft balances incurred under this program by a Chubb entity would be guaranteed by Chubb Limited (up to $300 million in the aggregate). Our syndicated letter of credit facility allows for same day drawings to fund a net pool overdraft should participating Chubb entities overdraw contributed funds from the pool. Restricted cash Included in Cash is restricted cash of $172 million and $115 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. Restricted cash represents amounts held for the benefit of third parties and is legally or contractually restricted as to withdrawal or usage. Amounts include deposits with U.S. and non-U.S. regulatory authorities, trust funds set up for the benefit of ceding companies, and amounts pledged as collateral to meet financing arrangements. j) Goodwill and Other intangible assets Goodwill represents the excess of the cost of acquisitions over the fair value of net assets acquired and is not amortized. Goodwill is assigned at acquisition to the applicable reporting unit of the acquired entities giving rise to the goodwill. Goodwill impairment tests are performed annually or more frequently if circumstances indicate a possible impairment. For goodwill impairment testing, we use a qualitative assessment to determine whether it is more likely than not (i.e., more than a 50 percent probability) that the fair value of a reporting unit is greater than its carrying amount. If our assessment indicates it is more likely than not that carrying value exceeds fair value, we quantitatively estimate a reporting unit's fair value. Indefinite lived intangible assets are not subject to amortization. Finite lived intangible assets are amortized over their useful lives, generally with an average original useful life of 25 years. Intangible assets are regularly reviewed for indicators of impairment. Impairment is recognized if the carrying amount is not recoverable from its undiscounted cash flows and is measured as the difference between the carrying amount and fair value. k) Unpaid losses and loss expenses A liability is established for the estimated unpaid losses and loss expenses under the terms of Chubb's policies and agreements. Similar to premiums that are recognized as revenues over the coverage period of the policy, a liability for unpaid losses and loss expenses is recognized as expense when insured events occur over the coverage period of the policy. This liability includes a provision for both reported claims (case reserves) and incurred but not reported claims (IBNR reserves). IBNR reserve estimates are generally calculated by first projecting the ultimate cost of all losses that have occurred (expected losses), and then subtracting paid losses, case reserves, and loss expenses. The methods of determining such estimates and establishing the resulting liability are reviewed regularly and any adjustments are reflected in income in the period in which they become known. Future developments may result in losses and loss expenses materially greater or less than recorded amounts. Except for net unpaid loss and loss expense reserves for certain structured settlements for which the timing and amount of future claim payments are reliably determinable and certain reserves for unsettled claims, Chubb does not discount its P&C loss reserves. The net undiscounted reserves related to structured settlements and certain reserves for unsettled claims are immaterial. Included in Unpaid losses and loss expenses are liabilities for A&E claims and expenses. These unpaid losses and loss expenses are principally related to claims arising from remediation costs associated with hazardous waste sites and bodily-injury claims related to asbestos products and environmental hazards. The estimation of these liabilities is particularly sensitive to changes in the legal environment including specific settlements that may be used as precedents to settle future claims. However, Chubb does not anticipate future changes in laws and regulations in setting its A&E reserve levels. Also included in Unpaid losses and loss expenses is the fair value adjustment of $62 million and $74 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, principally related to Chubb Corp’s historical unpaid losses and loss expenses. The estimated fair value consists of the present value of the expected net unpaid loss and loss adjustment expense payments adjusted for an estimated risk margin. The estimated cash flows are discounted at a risk-free rate. The estimated risk margin varies based on the inherent risks associated with each type of reserve. The fair value is amortized through Amortization of purchased intangibles on the Consolidated statements of operations based on the estimated payout patterns of unpaid loss and loss expenses at the acquisition date. Our loss reserves are presented net of contractual deductible recoverable amounts due from policyholders. Under the terms of certain high deductible policies which we offer, such as workers’ compensation and general liability, our customers are responsible to reimburse us for an agreed-upon dollar amount per claim. In nearly all cases we are required under such policies to pay covered claims first, and then seek reimbursement for amounts within the applicable deductible from our customers. We generally seek to mitigate this risk through collateral agreements. Prior period development arises from changes to loss estimates recognized in the current year that relate to loss reserves first reported in previous calendar years and excludes the effect of losses from the development of earned premiums from previous accident years. For purposes of analysis and disclosure, management views prior period development to be changes in the nominal value of loss estimates from period to period, net of premium and profit commission adjustments on loss sensitive contracts. Prior period development generally excludes changes in loss estimates that do not arise from the emergence of claims, such as those related to uncollectible reinsurance, interest, unallocated loss adjustment expenses, or foreign currency. Accordingly, specific items excluded from prior period development include the following: gains/losses related to foreign currency remeasurement; losses recognized from the early termination or commutation of reinsurance agreements that principally relate to the time value of money; changes in the value of reinsurance business assumed reflected in losses incurred but principally related to the time value of money; and losses that arise from changes in estimates of earned premiums from prior accident years. Except for foreign currency remeasurement, which is included in Net realized gains (losses), these items are included in current year losses within Losses and loss expenses on the Consolidated statements of operations. l) Future policy benefits For traditional and limited-payment contracts, contracts are grouped into cohorts by coverage type and issue year to determine a liability for future policy benefits. The future policy benefit liability (FPBL) is the present value of estimated future policy benefits to be paid to or on behalf of policyholders and certain related expenses less the present value of estimated future net premiums to be collected from policyholders and is accrued as premium revenue is recognized. The valuation of this liability requires management to make estimates and assumptions regarding expenses, mortality, and persistency. Estimates are primarily based on historical experience. Actual results could differ materially from these estimates. The liability is adjusted for differences between actual and expected experience. With the exception of the expense assumption, we review our future cash flow assumptions at least annually to determine if the net premium ratio (NPR), the mechanism to record the liability as premium is earned, used to calculate the liability should be changed at that time. We have elected to use expense assumptions that are locked in at contract inception and are not subsequently reviewed or updated. Each quarter, we update the cash flows expected over the entire life of each cohort for actual historical experience and projected future cash flows. These updated cash flows are used to calculate the revised NPR, which is used to derive an updated FPBL as of the beginning of the current reporting period, discounted at the original contract issuance discount rate. This amount is then compared to the carrying amount of the liability as of that same date, but before the updating of cash flow assumptions, to determine the current period change in FPBL. This current period change in the liability is the remeasurement gain or loss and is recorded in Policy benefits in the Consolidated statements of operations. In subsequent periods, the revised NPR is used to record the FPBL until future revisions become required. For traditional and limited-payment contracts, the discount rate assumption is based on an upper-medium grade fixed-income instrument yield. An equivalent rate is derived based on A-credit-rated fixed-income instruments with similar duration to the liability. The discount rate assumption is updated quarterly and used to remeasure the liability at each reporting date, with the resulting change reflected in Other comprehensive income. For liability cash flows that are projected beyond the duration of market-observable A-credit-rated fixed-income instruments, we use the last market-observable yield level, as the basis for a linear interpolation to determine yield assumptions for durations that do not have market-observable yields. Deferred profit liability For limited-payment products, gross premiums received in excess of net premiums are deferred at initial recognition as a deferred profit liability (DPL) and recorded as a component of Future policy benefits in the Consolidated balance sheets. Net premiums are measured using actual cash flows and future cash flow assumptions consistent with those used in the measurement of the liability for future policy benefits and remeasured quarterly. The DPL is amortized in proportion to the discounted in-force policies. Interest is accreted on the balance of the DPL using the discount rate consistent with the interest accretion on the FPBL. The recalculated DPL, including adjusted amortization through the current period, is compared to the current carrying amount and the difference is recognized as an adjustment to Policy benefits in the Consolidated statements of operations as a remeasurement gain or loss. m) Market Risk Benefits Chubb reinsures various death and living benefit guarantees associated with variable annuities issued primarily in the United States, which meet the definition of Market risk benefits (MRB). These reinsurance contracts provide protection to the ceding entity from, and expose us to, other-than-nominal capital market risk. Market risk benefits are measured at fair value using a valuation model based on current net exposures, market data, our experience, and other factors. Changes in fair value are recognized in Market risk benefits gains (losses) in the Consolidated statements of operations, except the change in fair value due to a change in the instrument-specific credit risk, which is recognized in other comprehensive income. We generally receive a monthly premium during the accumulation phase of the covered annuities (in-force) based on a percentage of either the underlying accumulated account values or the underlying accumulated guaranteed values. Depending on an annuitant's age, the accumulation phase can last many years. To limit our exposure under these programs, all reinsurance treaties include annual or aggregate claim limits and many include an aggregate deductible. The guarantees which are payable on death, referred to as guaranteed minimum death benefits (GMDB), principally cover shortfalls between accumulated account value at the time of an annuitant's death and either i) an annuitant's total deposits; ii) an annuitant's total deposits plus a minimum annual return; or iii) the highest accumulated account value attained at any policy anniversary date. In addition, a death benefit may be based on a formula specified in the variable annuity contract that uses a percentage of the growth of the underlying contract value. Under reinsurance programs covering guaranteed living benefits (GLB), we assume the risk of guaranteed minimum income benefits (GMIB) associated with variable annuity contracts. The GMIB risk is triggered if, at the time the contract holder elects to convert the accumulated account value to a periodic payment stream (annuitize), the accumulated account value is not sufficient to provide a guaranteed minimum level of monthly income. n) Separate accounts Separate account assets represent segregated funds where investment risks are borne by the customers, except to the extent of certain guarantees made by Chubb. Separate account liabilities primarily represent the policyholders’ account balances in separate account assets and are equal and offsetting to total separate account assets. The assets of each account are legally segregated and are not subject to claims that arise out of any Chubb’s business. Mortality, policy administration and surrender charges assessed against the accounts are included in Net premiums earned on the Consolidated statements of operations. The related investment performance of the separate account assets (including interest, dividends, realized gains and losses, and changes in unrealized gains and losses) generally accrue to the policyholders and are not included in our Consolidated statements of operations. Fees charged against the separate accounts are deferred and recorded within Policyholders’ account balances on the Consolidated balance sheets until they are earned within Net premiums earned on the Consolidated statements of operations. Unearned revenue liabilities pertaining to separate accounts are recorded in Policyholders' account balances on the Consolidated balance sheets. Refer to section o) Policyholders’ account balances, below. o) Policyholders' account balances Policyholders' account balances represent a liability for investment contracts sold that do not meet the definition of an insurance contract, and certain of these contracts are sold with a guaranteed rate of return. Consideration received or paid is recorded as a deposit asset or liability in the balance sheet as opposed to recording premiums and losses in the statements of operations. The liability for policyholders' account balances equals accumulated policy account values, which consist of consideration received from the policyholder, plus any credited income, less any relevant charges. Also included within Policyholders' account balances is an unearned revenue liability which represents policy charges for services to be provided in future periods. The charges are deferred as incurred and are generally amortized over the expected life of the contract using the same methodology, factors, and assumptions used to amortize deferred acquisition costs. Certain of our long-duration contracts are supported by assets that do not qualify for separate account reporting under U.S. GAAP. These assets are classified as non-qualified separate account assets and reported in Other investments and the offsetting liabilities are reported in Policyholders’ account balances in the Consolidated balance sheets. Changes in the fair value of separate account assets that do not qualify for separate account reporting under U.S. GAAP are reported in Other (income) expense, and the offsetting movements in the liabilities are included in Policy benefits in the Consolidated statements of operations. p) Property and equipment Property and equipment used in operations are capitalized and carried at cost less accumulated depreciation and are reported within Other assets in the Consolidated balance sheets. At December 31, 2023, property and equipment totaled $2.9 billion, consisting principally of capitalized software costs of $1.7 billion incurred to develop or obtain computer software for internal use and company-owned facilities of $510 million. Depreciation is calculated using the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the assets. For capitalized software, the estimated useful life is generally three to five years (for security and analytics systems), but can be as long as 15 years (for systems of record such as our general ledger and processing systems such as our policy administration systems). For company-owned facilities the estimated useful life is 40 years. At December 31, 2022, property and equipment totaled $2.4 billion. q) Foreign currency remeasurement and translation The functional currency for each of our foreign operations is generally the currency of the local operating environment. Transactions in currencies other than a foreign operation's functional currency are remeasured into the functional currency, and the resulting foreign exchange gains and losses are reflected in Net realized gains (losses) in the Consolidated statements of operations. Functional currency assets and liabilities are translated into the reporting currency, U.S. dollars, using period end exchange rates and the related translation adjustments are recorded as a separate component of AOCI in Shareholders' equity. Functional statement of operations amounts expressed in functional currencies are translated using average exchange rates. r) Administrative expenses Administrative expenses generally include all operating costs other than policy acquisition costs. The North America Commercial P&C Insurance segment manages and uses an in-house third-party claims administrator, ESIS Inc. (ESIS). ESIS performs claims management and risk control services for domestic and international organizations that self-insure P&C exposures as well as internal P&C exposures. The net operating income (loss) of ESIS is included within Administrative expenses in the Consolidated statements of operations and was $(2) million, $12 million, and $25 million for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022, and 2021, respectively. s) Asset management and performance fee revenue and expenses Huatai's asset management companies recognize revenue and expenses from the management of third-party assets which are unrelated to Chubb's core insurance operations. These revenues include management fees, which are recognized in the period in which the services are performed, and asset performance fees, which are recognized to the extent it is probable that a significant reversal will not occur. These fees and expenses are included in Other (income) expense on the Consolidated statements of operations. Refer to Note 18 for additional information. t) Income taxes Income taxes have been recorded related to those operations subject to income tax. Deferred tax assets and liabilities result from temporary differences between the amounts recorded in the Consolidated Financial Statements and the tax basis of our assets and liabilities. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities of a change in tax law or rates is recognized in the period that includes the enactment date. A valuation allowance against deferred tax assets is recorded if it is more likely than not that all, or some portion, of the benefits related to these deferred tax assets will not be realized. The valuation allowance assessment considers tax planning strategies, where appropriate. We recognize uncertain tax positions that are determined to be more likely than not of being sustained upon examination. Recognized income tax positions are measured at the largest amount that has a greater than 50 percent likelihood of being realized. Changes in recognition or measurement are reflected in the period in which the change in judgment occurs. u) Earnings per share Basic earnings per share is calculated using the weighted-average shares outstanding, including participating securities with non-forfeitable rights to dividends such as unvested restricted stock. All potentially dilutive securities, including stock options are excluded from the basic earnings per share calculation. In calculating diluted earnings per share, the weighted-average shares outstanding is increased to include all potentially dilutive securities. Basic and diluted earnings per share are calculated by dividing Net income attributable to Chubb by the applicable weighted-average number of shares outstanding during the year. v) Share-based compensation Chubb measures and records compensation cost for all share-based payment awards at grant-date fair value. Compensation costs are recognized for vesting of share-based payment awards with only service conditions on a straight-line basis over the requisite service period for each separately vesting portion of the award as if the award were, in substance, multiple awards. For retirement-eligible participants, compensation costs for certain share-based payment awards are recognized immediately at the date of grant. Refer to Note 16 for additional information. w) Cigna integration expenses Direct costs related to business combinations, principally Cigna's business in Asia, were expensed as incurred. Cigna integration expenses were $69 million and $48 million for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, and include all internal and external costs directly related to the integration activities, principally of the acquisition of Cigna's business in Asia. These expenses principally consisted of third-party consulting fees, employee-related retention costs, and other professional and legal fees related to the acquisition. x) New accounting pronouncements Accounting guidance adopted in 2023 Targeted Improvements to the Accounting for Long-Duration Contracts Effective January 1, 2023, we adopted new guidance on the accounting for long-duration contracts (LDTI). The new accounting guidance requires more frequent updating of assumptions and a standardized discount rate for non-participating traditional and limited pay insurance contract liabilities, a requirement to use the fair value measurement model for policies with market risk benefits, simplified amortization of deferred acquisition costs, and enhanced disclosures. With the exception of market risk benefits, we adopted this guidance on a modified retrospective basis. Under the modified retrospective basis, the liability for future policy benefits is remeasured using the current discount rate at January 1, 2021 (the transition date) and the impact of the changes are recorded in AOCI and best estimate cash flow assumptions are applied to contracts in force. The liability for future policy benefits prior to the transition date continues to use the original discount rate (interest accretion rate). The guidance for long-duration contracts applicable to market risk benefits, primarily assumed reinsurance programs involving minimum benefit guarantees under variable annuity contracts, was adopted on a retrospective transition approach. Under the retrospective transition approach, we calculated the fair value of market risk benefits which were previously accounted for under an insurance accounting model and recognized an adjustment to retained earnings as of January 1, 2021. We also reclassified changes in our own credit risk on Market risk benefits from Retained earnings to Accumulated other comprehensive income at the transition date. On January 1, 2023, we recorded a cumulative effect adjustment and increased beginning Retained earnings by $52 million, and decreased AOCI by $1.8 billion. Results for the prior reporting periods in this report are presented in accordance with the new guidance. We also adopted the required disclosures in Note 6 Deferred acquisition costs, Note 9 Future policy benefits, Note 10 Policyholders' account balances, Separate accounts, and Unearned revenue liabilities, and Note 11 Market risk benefits. The impact of adoption of the new guidance on our historical financial statements is as follows:
| December 31, 2022
(in millions of U.S. dollars) | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted
Consolidated balance sheet |  |  |  |  |
Reinsurance recoverable on losses and loss expenses | $ | 18,901 |  |  | $ | (42) |  |  | $ | 18,859 |
Reinsurance recoverable on policy benefits | 303 |  |  | (1) |  |  | 302 |
Deferred policy acquisition costs | 5,788 |  |  | 243 |  |  | 6,031 |
Value of business acquired | 3,596 |  |  | 106 |  |  | 3,702 |
Prepaid reinsurance premiums | 3,140 |  |  | (4) |  |  | 3,136 |
Investments in partially-owned insurance companies | 2,877 |  |  | (370) |  |  | 2,507 |
Unpaid losses and loss expenses | 76,323 |  |  | (576) |  |  | 75,747 |
Unearned premiums | 20,360 |  |  | (647) |  |  | 19,713 |
Future policy benefits | 10,120 |  |  | 356 |  |  | 10,476 |
Market risk benefits | — |  |  | 800 |  |  | 800 |
Insurance and reinsurance balances payable | 7,795 |  |  | (15) |  |  | 7,780 |
Deferred tax liabilities | 292 |  |  | 85 |  |  | 377 |
Retained earnings | 48,334 |  |  | (29) |  |  | 48,305 |
Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) | (10,193) |  |  | 8 |  |  | (10,185) |
Excluded from the table above is the reclassification of Separate account assets, Separate account liabilities, and Policyholders' account balances as separate line items on the Consolidated balance sheets. Separate accounts assets were previously classified in Other assets, and Separate account liabilities and Policyholders' account balances were previously classified in Accounts payable, accrued expenses, and other liabilities.
| Twelve Months Ended |  | Twelve Months Ended
| December 31, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021
(in millions of U.S. dollars) | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted |  | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted
Consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Net premiums written | $ | 41,755 |  |  | $ | (35) |  |  | $ | 41,720 |  |  | $ | 37,868 |  |  | $ | (41) |  |  | $ | 37,827 |
Net premiums earned | 40,389 |  |  | (29) |  |  | 40,360 |  |  | 36,355 |  |  | (63) |  |  | 36,292 |
Net realized gains (losses) | (965) |  |  | (120) |  |  | (1,085) |  |  | 1,152 |  |  | (122) |  |  | 1,030 |
Market risk benefits gains (losses) | — |  |  | 80 |  |  | 80 |  |  | — |  |  | 91 |  |  | 91 |
Losses and loss expenses | 23,342 |  |  | (770) |  |  | 22,572 |  |  | 21,980 |  |  | (950) |  |  | 21,030 |
Policy benefits | 1,492 |  |  | 822 |  |  | 2,314 |  |  | 699 |  |  | 1,041 |  |  | 1,740 |
Policy acquisition costs | 7,392 |  |  | (53) |  |  | 7,339 |  |  | 6,918 |  |  | (160) |  |  | 6,758 |
Other (income) expense | 74 |  |  | 15 |  |  | 89 |  |  | (2,365) |  |  | (2) |  |  | (2,367) |
Income tax expense | 1,255 |  |  | (16) |  |  | 1,239 |  |  | 1,277 |  |  | (8) |  |  | 1,269 |
Net Income | 5,313 |  |  | (67) |  |  | 5,246 |  |  | 8,539 |  |  | (14) |  |  | 8,525 |
Other comprehensive income |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Change in current discount rate on future policy benefits | — |  |  | 1,480 |  |  | 1,480 |  |  | — |  |  | 387 |  |  | 387 |
Change in instrument-specific credit risk on market risk benefits | — |  |  | 33 |  |  | 33 |  |  | — |  |  | 27 |  |  | 27 |
Income tax benefit related to OCI items | 1,121 |  |  | (156) |  |  | 965 |  |  | 427 |  |  | (61) |  |  | 366 |
Comprehensive income (loss) | (5,230) |  |  | 1,365 |  |  | (3,865) |  |  | 6,020 |  |  | 364 |  |  | 6,384 |
| Twelve Months Ended |  | Twelve Months Ended
| December 31, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021
(in millions of U.S. dollars) | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted |  | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted
Consolidated statements of cash flows |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Net cash flows from operating activities | $ | 11,243 |  |  | $ | 15 |  |  | $ | 11,258 |  |  | $ | 11,149 |  |  | $ | 2 |  |  | $ | 11,151 |
Net cash flows used for financing activities | (5,127) |  |  | (15) |  |  | (5,142) |  |  | (4,409) |  |  | (2) |  |  | (4,411) |
The following table presents a reconciliation of the pre-adoption December 31, 2020, to the post adoption January 1, 2021, balance of future policy benefits:
| Life Insurance |  | Overseas General Insurance |  |  |  | Offsetting Equity Line Classification
(in millions of U.S. dollars) | Term Life |  |  |  | Whole Life |  | A&H |  | Other |  | A&H |  | Total |  |
Future policy benefits |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Balance – December 31, 2020 (1) | $ | 391 |  |  |  |  | $ | 2,578 |  |  | $ | 2,270 |  |  | $ | 72 |  |  | $ | 754 |  |  | $ | 6,065 |  |  |
Effect of change in current discount rate | 63 |  |  |  |  | 1,189 |  |  | 299 |  |  | 17 |  |  | 19 |  |  | 1,587 |  |  | AOCI
Balance – January 1, 2021 | $ | 454 |  |  |  |  | $ | 3,767 |  |  | $ | 2,569 |  |  | $ | 89 |  |  | $ | 773 |  |  | $ | 7,652 |  |  |
(1) Includes future policy benefits previously included within Unpaid losses and loss expenses on the pre-adoption Consolidated balance sheets, primarily certain international A&H business, and excludes deferred profit liability and certain guaranteed minimum death benefits reclassified to Market risk benefits on the post adoption period balance sheets. The following table presents a reconciliation of the pre-adoption December 31, 2020, to the post adoption January 1, 2021, balance of market risk benefits:
(in millions of U.S. dollars) |  |  |  |  |  |  | Offsetting Equity Line Classification
Market risk benefits |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Balance – December 31, 2020 |  |  | $ | 1,138 |  |  |  |  |
Cumulative effect of changes in instrument-specific credit risk between original contract issuance date and transition date (1) |  |  | 84 |  |  |  |  | AOCI
Other fair value adjustments |  |  | (59) |  |  |  |  | Retained Earnings
Balance – January 1, 2021 |  |  | $ | 1,163 |  |  |  |  |
(1) Includes $77 million of instrument-specific credit risk allocated from retained earnings to AOCI.
Accounting guidance not yet adopted | Accounting guidance adopted in 2023 Targeted Improvements to the Accounting for Long-Duration Contracts Effective January 1, 2023, we adopted new guidance on the accounting for long-duration contracts (LDTI). The new accounting guidance requires more frequent updating of assumptions and a standardized discount rate for non-participating traditional and limited pay insurance contract liabilities, a requirement to use the fair value measurement model for policies with market risk benefits, simplified amortization of deferred acquisition costs, and enhanced disclosures. With the exception of market risk benefits, we adopted this guidance on a modified retrospective basis. Under the modified retrospective basis, the liability for future policy benefits is remeasured using the current discount rate at January 1, 2021 (the transition date) and the impact of the changes are recorded in AOCI and best estimate cash flow assumptions are applied to contracts in force. The liability for future policy benefits prior to the transition date continues to use the original discount rate (interest accretion rate). The guidance for long-duration contracts applicable to market risk benefits, primarily assumed reinsurance programs involving minimum benefit guarantees under variable annuity contracts, was adopted on a retrospective transition approach. Under the retrospective transition approach, we calculated the fair value of market risk benefits which were previously accounted for under an insurance accounting model and recognized an adjustment to retained earnings as of January 1, 2021. We also reclassified changes in our own credit risk on Market risk benefits from Retained earnings to Accumulated other comprehensive income at the transition date. On January 1, 2023, we recorded a cumulative effect adjustment and increased beginning Retained earnings by $52 million, and decreased AOCI by $1.8 billion. Results for the prior reporting periods in this report are presented in accordance with the new guidance. We also adopted the required disclosures in Note 6 Deferred acquisition costs, Note 9 Future policy benefits, Note 10 Policyholders' account balances, Separate accounts, and Unearned revenue liabilities, and Note 11 Market risk benefits. The impact of adoption of the new guidance on our historical financial statements is as follows:
| December 31, 2022
(in millions of U.S. dollars) | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted
Consolidated balance sheet |  |  |  |  |
Reinsurance recoverable on losses and loss expenses | $ | 18,901 |  |  | $ | (42) |  |  | $ | 18,859 |
Reinsurance recoverable on policy benefits | 303 |  |  | (1) |  |  | 302 |
Deferred policy acquisition costs | 5,788 |  |  | 243 |  |  | 6,031 |
Value of business acquired | 3,596 |  |  | 106 |  |  | 3,702 |
Prepaid reinsurance premiums | 3,140 |  |  | (4) |  |  | 3,136 |
Investments in partially-owned insurance companies | 2,877 |  |  | (370) |  |  | 2,507 |
Unpaid losses and loss expenses | 76,323 |  |  | (576) |  |  | 75,747 |
Unearned premiums | 20,360 |  |  | (647) |  |  | 19,713 |
Future policy benefits | 10,120 |  |  | 356 |  |  | 10,476 |
Market risk benefits | — |  |  | 800 |  |  | 800 |
Insurance and reinsurance balances payable | 7,795 |  |  | (15) |  |  | 7,780 |
Deferred tax liabilities | 292 |  |  | 85 |  |  | 377 |
Retained earnings | 48,334 |  |  | (29) |  |  | 48,305 |
Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) | (10,193) |  |  | 8 |  |  | (10,185) |
Excluded from the table above is the reclassification of Separate account assets, Separate account liabilities, and Policyholders' account balances as separate line items on the Consolidated balance sheets. Separate accounts assets were previously classified in Other assets, and Separate account liabilities and Policyholders' account balances were previously classified in Accounts payable, accrued expenses, and other liabilities.
| Twelve Months Ended |  | Twelve Months Ended
| December 31, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021
(in millions of U.S. dollars) | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted |  | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted
Consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Net premiums written | $ | 41,755 |  |  | $ | (35) |  |  | $ | 41,720 |  |  | $ | 37,868 |  |  | $ | (41) |  |  | $ | 37,827 |
Net premiums earned | 40,389 |  |  | (29) |  |  | 40,360 |  |  | 36,355 |  |  | (63) |  |  | 36,292 |
Net realized gains (losses) | (965) |  |  | (120) |  |  | (1,085) |  |  | 1,152 |  |  | (122) |  |  | 1,030 |
Market risk benefits gains (losses) | — |  |  | 80 |  |  | 80 |  |  | — |  |  | 91 |  |  | 91 |
Losses and loss expenses | 23,342 |  |  | (770) |  |  | 22,572 |  |  | 21,980 |  |  | (950) |  |  | 21,030 |
Policy benefits | 1,492 |  |  | 822 |  |  | 2,314 |  |  | 699 |  |  | 1,041 |  |  | 1,740 |
Policy acquisition costs | 7,392 |  |  | (53) |  |  | 7,339 |  |  | 6,918 |  |  | (160) |  |  | 6,758 |
Other (income) expense | 74 |  |  | 15 |  |  | 89 |  |  | (2,365) |  |  | (2) |  |  | (2,367) |
Income tax expense | 1,255 |  |  | (16) |  |  | 1,239 |  |  | 1,277 |  |  | (8) |  |  | 1,269 |
Net Income | 5,313 |  |  | (67) |  |  | 5,246 |  |  | 8,539 |  |  | (14) |  |  | 8,525 |
Other comprehensive income |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Change in current discount rate on future policy benefits | — |  |  | 1,480 |  |  | 1,480 |  |  | — |  |  | 387 |  |  | 387 |
Change in instrument-specific credit risk on market risk benefits | — |  |  | 33 |  |  | 33 |  |  | — |  |  | 27 |  |  | 27 |
Income tax benefit related to OCI items | 1,121 |  |  | (156) |  |  | 965 |  |  | 427 |  |  | (61) |  |  | 366 |
Comprehensive income (loss) | (5,230) |  |  | 1,365 |  |  | (3,865) |  |  | 6,020 |  |  | 364 |  |  | 6,384 |
| Twelve Months Ended |  | Twelve Months Ended
| December 31, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021
(in millions of U.S. dollars) | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted |  | As Previously Reported |  | LDTI Adoption Adjustment |  | As Adjusted
Consolidated statements of cash flows |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Net cash flows from operating activities | $ | 11,243 |  |  | $ | 15 |  |  | $ | 11,258 |  |  | $ | 11,149 |  |  | $ | 2 |  |  | $ | 11,151 |
Net cash flows used for financing activities | (5,127) |  |  | (15) |  |  | (5,142) |  |  | (4,409) |  |  | (2) |  |  | (4,411) |
The following table presents a reconciliation of the pre-adoption December 31, 2020, to the post adoption January 1, 2021, balance of future policy benefits:
| Life Insurance |  | Overseas General Insurance |  |  |  | Offsetting Equity Line Classification
(in millions of U.S. dollars) | Term Life |  |  |  | Whole Life |  | A&H |  | Other |  | A&H |  | Total |  |
Future policy benefits |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Balance – December 31, 2020 (1) | $ | 391 |  |  |  |  | $ | 2,578 |  |  | $ | 2,270 |  |  | $ | 72 |  |  | $ | 754 |  |  | $ | 6,065 |  |  |
Effect of change in current discount rate | 63 |  |  |  |  | 1,189 |  |  | 299 |  |  | 17 |  |  | 19 |  |  | 1,587 |  |  | AOCI
Balance – January 1, 2021 | $ | 454 |  |  |  |  | $ | 3,767 |  |  | $ | 2,569 |  |  | $ | 89 |  |  | $ | 773 |  |  | $ | 7,652 |  |  |
(1) Includes future policy benefits previously included within Unpaid losses and loss expenses on the pre-adoption Consolidated balance sheets, primarily certain international A&H business, and excludes deferred profit liability and certain guaranteed minimum death benefits reclassified to Market risk benefits on the post adoption period balance sheets. The following table presents a reconciliation of the pre-adoption December 31, 2020, to the post adoption January 1, 2021, balance of market risk benefits:
(in millions of U.S. dollars) |  |  |  |  |  |  | Offsetting Equity Line Classification
Market risk benefits |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Balance – December 31, 2020 |  |  | $ | 1,138 |  |  |  |  |
Cumulative effect of changes in instrument-specific credit risk between original contract issuance date and transition date (1) |  |  | 84 |  |  |  |  | AOCI
Other fair value adjustments |  |  | (59) |  |  |  |  | Retained Earnings
Balance – January 1, 2021 |  |  | $ | 1,163 |  |  |  |  |
(1) Includes $77 million of instrument-specific credit risk allocated from retained earnings to AOCI.

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