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Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies) | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2023
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies |
Basis of Presentation | The financial statements presented in this report represent the consolidation of Waste Management, Inc., a Delaware corporation; its wholly-owned and majority-owned subsidiaries; and certain variable interest entities for which Waste Management, Inc. or its subsidiaries are the primary beneficiaries as described in Note 18. Waste Management, Inc. is a holding company and all operations are conducted by its subsidiaries. When the terms “the Company,” “we,” “us” or “our” are used in this document, those terms refer to Waste Management, Inc., together with its consolidated subsidiaries and consolidated variable interest entities. When we use the term “WMI,” we are referring only to Waste Management, Inc., the parent holding company. We are North America’s leading provider of comprehensive environmental solutions, providing services throughout the United States (“U.S.”) and Canada. We partner with our customers and the communities we serve to manage and reduce waste at each stage from collection to disposal, while recovering valuable resources and creating clean, renewable energy. Our solid waste business is operated and managed locally by our subsidiaries that focus on distinct geographic areas and provide collection, transfer, disposal, recycling and resource recovery services. Through our subsidiaries, including our Waste Management Renewable Energy (“WM Renewable Energy”) business, we are also a leading developer, operator and owner of landfill gas-to-energy facilities in the U.S. and Canada that produce renewable electricity and renewable natural gas, which is a significant source of fuel that we allocate to our natural gas fleet. To enhance transparency regarding our financial performance, highlight the strength and consistency of our core solid waste businesses, and underscore our commitment to sustainability through planned and ongoing investments in our Recycling Processing and Sales and WM Renewable Energy businesses, beginning in the fourth quarter of 2023, our senior management revised its segment reporting to (i) reflect the financial results of our collection, transfer, disposal and resource recovery services businesses independently; (ii) combine the results of all recycling facilities from our East and West Tier segments with our recycling brokerage and sales activities to form a newly created Recycling Processing and Sales reportable segment and (iii) include our WM Renewable Energy business as a reportable segment. Accordingly, our senior management now evaluates, oversees and manages the financial performance of our business through four reportable segments, referred to as (i) Collection and Disposal - East Tier (“East Tier”); (ii) Collection and Disposal - West Tier (“West Tier”); (iii) Recycling Processing and Sales and (iv) WM Renewable Energy. Our East and West Tier, along with certain ancillary services not managed through our tier segments, but that support our collection and disposal operations, form our “Collection and Disposal” businesses. We also provide additional services not managed through our four reportable segments, which are presented as Corporate and Other. Refer to Note 19 for further discussion.
Reclassifications | Reclassifications When necessary, reclassifications have been made to our prior period financial information to conform to the current year presentation and are not material to our consolidated financial statements.
Principles of Consolidation | Principles of Consolidation The accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements include the accounts of WMI, its wholly-owned and majority-owned subsidiaries and certain variable interest entities for which we have determined that we are the primary beneficiary. All material intercompany balances and transactions have been eliminated. Investments in unconsolidated entities are accounted for under the appropriate method of accounting.
Estimates and Assumptions | Estimates and Assumptions In preparing our financial statements, we make numerous estimates and assumptions that affect the accounting for and recognition and disclosure of assets, liabilities, equity, revenues and expenses. We must make these estimates and assumptions because certain information that we use is dependent on future events, cannot be calculated with precision from available data or simply cannot be calculated. In some cases, these estimates are difficult to determine, and we must exercise significant judgment. In preparing our financial statements, the most difficult, subjective and complex estimates and the assumptions that present the greatest amount of uncertainty relate to our accounting for landfills, environmental remediation liabilities, long-lived asset impairments, intangible asset impairments and the fair value of assets and liabilities acquired in business combinations. Each of these items is discussed in additional detail below. Actual results could differ materially from the estimates and assumptions that we use in the preparation of our financial statements.
Cash and Cash Equivalents | Cash and Cash Equivalents Cash in excess of current operating requirements is invested in short-term interest-bearing instruments with maturities of three months or less at the date of purchase and is stated at cost, which approximates market value.
Concentrations of Credit Risk | Concentrations of Credit Risk Financial instruments that potentially subject us to concentrations of credit risk consist primarily of cash and cash equivalents, investments held within restricted funds, and accounts receivable. We make efforts to control our exposure to credit risk associated with these instruments by (i) placing our assets and other financial interests with a diverse group of credit-worthy financial institutions; (ii) holding high-quality financial instruments while limiting investments in any one instrument and (iii) maintaining strict policies over credit extension that include credit evaluations, credit limits and monitoring procedures, although generally we do not have collateral requirements for credit extensions. We also control our exposure associated with trade receivables by discontinuing service, to the extent allowable, to non-paying customers. However, our overall credit risk associated with trade receivables is limited due to the large number and diversity of customers we serve. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, no single customer represented greater than 5% of total accounts receivable.
Accounts and Other Receivables | Accounts and Other Receivables Our receivables, which are recorded when billed, when services are performed or when cash is advanced, are claims against third parties that will generally be settled in cash. The carrying value of our receivables, net of the allowance for doubtful accounts, represents the estimated net realizable value. We estimate our allowance for doubtful accounts based on historical collection trends; type of customer, such as municipal or commercial; the age of outstanding receivables and existing as well as expected economic conditions. If events or changes in circumstances indicate that specific receivable balances may be impaired, further consideration is given to the collectability of those balances and the allowance is adjusted accordingly. Past-due receivable balances are written off when our internal collection efforts have been unsuccessful. Also, we recognize interest income on long-term interest-bearing notes receivable as the interest accrues under the terms of the notes. We no longer accrue interest once the notes are deemed uncollectible. The following table reflects the activity in our allowance for doubtful accounts of trade receivables for the year ended December 31 (in millions):
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ |  | 2023 |  | 2022
Balance as of January 1 | ​ | $ | 26 | ​ | $ | 25
Additions charged to expense | ​ |  | 53 | ​ |  | 55
Accounts written-off, net of recoveries | ​ |  | (58) | ​ |  | (49)
Acquisitions, divestitures and other, net | ​ |  | 9 | ​ |  | (5)
Balance as of December 31 | ​ | $ | 30 | ​ | $ | 26
​ To determine the allowance for doubtful accounts for trade receivables, we rely upon, among other factors, historical loss trends, the age of outstanding receivables, and existing as well as expected economic conditions. We determined that all of our trade receivables share similar risk characteristics. We monitor our credit exposure on an ongoing basis and assess whether assets in the pool continue to display similar risk characteristics. Based on aging analysis as of both December 31, 2023 and 2022, approximately 90% of our trade receivables were outstanding less than 60 days. To determine the allowance for doubtful accounts for other receivables, as well as loans and other instruments, we rely primarily on credit ratings and associated default rates based on the maturity of the instrument. Other receivables, as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, include receivables related to income tax payments in excess of our current income tax obligations of $120 million and $150 million, respectively. Other receivables as of December 31, 2023 and 2022 also include a receivable of $26 million and $19 million, respectively, related to alternative fuel tax credits. Based on an aging analysis as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, approximately 50% and 55%, respectively, of our other receivables were due within 12 months or less.
Parts and Supplies | Parts and Supplies Parts and supplies consist primarily of spare parts, fuel, tires, lubricants and processed recycling materials. Our parts and supplies are stated at the lower of cost (using the average cost method) or market.
Landfill Accounting | Landfill Accounting Cost Basis of Landfill Assets — We capitalize various costs that we incur to make a landfill ready to accept waste. These costs generally include expenditures for land (including the landfill footprint and required landfill buffer property); permitting; excavation; liner material and installation; landfill leachate collection systems; landfill gas collection systems; environmental monitoring equipment for groundwater and landfill gas; and directly related engineering, capitalized interest, on-site road construction and other capital infrastructure costs. The cost basis of our landfill assets also includes asset retirement costs, which represent estimates of future costs associated with landfill final capping, closure and post-closure activities. These costs are discussed below. Final Capping, Closure and Post-Closure Costs — Following is a description of our asset retirement activities and our related accounting:
| ● | Final Capping — Generally involves the installation of flexible membrane liners and geosynthetic clay liners, drainage and compacted soil layers and topsoil over areas of a landfill where total airspace has been consumed. Final capping asset retirement obligations are recorded on a units-of-consumption basis as airspace is consumed related to the specific final capping event with a corresponding increase in the landfill asset. Each final capping event is accounted for as a discrete obligation and recorded as an asset and a liability based on estimates of the discounted cash flows associated with each final capping event.
| ● | Closure — Includes the construction of the final portion of methane gas collection systems (when required), demobilization and routine maintenance costs. These are costs incurred after the site ceases to accept waste, but
|  | before the landfill is certified as closed by the applicable state regulatory agency. These costs are recorded as an asset retirement obligation as airspace is consumed over the life of the landfill with a corresponding increase in the landfill asset. Closure obligations are recorded over the life of the landfill based on estimates of the discounted cash flows associated with performing closure activities.
| ● | Post-Closure — Involves the maintenance and monitoring of a landfill site that has been certified closed by the applicable regulatory agency. Generally, we are required to maintain and monitor landfill sites for a 30-year period. These maintenance and monitoring costs are recorded as an asset retirement obligation as airspace is consumed over the life of the landfill with a corresponding increase in the landfill asset. Post-closure obligations are recorded over the life of the landfill based on estimates of the discounted cash flows associated with performing post-closure activities.
We develop our estimates of these obligations using input from our operations personnel, engineers and accountants. Our estimates are based on our interpretation of current requirements and proposed regulatory changes and are intended to approximate fair value. Absent quoted market prices, the estimate of fair value is based on the best available information, including the results of present value techniques. In many cases, we contract with third parties to fulfill our obligations for final capping, closure and post-closure. We use historical experience, professional engineering judgment and quoted or actual prices paid for similar work to determine the fair value of these obligations. We are required to recognize these obligations at market prices whether we plan to contract with third parties or perform the work ourselves. In those instances where we perform the work with internal resources, the incremental profit margin realized is recognized as a component of operating income when the work is completed. Once we have determined final capping, closure and post-closure costs, we inflate those costs to the expected time of payment and discount those expected future costs back to present value. As of December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, we inflated these costs in current dollars to the expected time of payment using an inflation rate of 2.50%, 2.50% and 2.25%, respectively. We discounted these costs to present value using the credit-adjusted, risk-free rate effective at the time an obligation is incurred, consistent with the expected cash flow approach. Any changes in expectations that result in an upward revision to the estimated cash flows are treated as a new liability and discounted at the current rate while downward revisions are discounted at the historical weighted average rate of the recorded obligation. As a result, the credit-adjusted, risk-free discount rate used to calculate the present value of an obligation is specific to each individual asset retirement obligation. The weighted average rate applicable to our long-term asset retirement obligations as of December 31, 2023 was approximately 4.8%. We record the estimated fair value of final capping, closure and post-closure liabilities for our landfills based on the airspace consumed through the current period. The fair value of final capping obligations is developed based on our estimates of the airspace consumed to date for each final capping event and the expected timing of each final capping event. The fair value of closure and post-closure obligations is developed based on our estimates of the airspace consumed to date for the entire landfill and the expected timing of each closure and post-closure activity. Because these obligations are measured at estimated fair value using present value techniques, changes in the estimated cost or timing of future final capping, closure and post-closure activities could result in a material change in these liabilities, related assets and results of operations. We assess the appropriateness of the estimates used to develop our recorded balances annually, or more often if significant facts change. Sustained changes in inflation rates or the estimated costs, timing or extent of future final capping, closure and post-closure activities typically result in both (i) a current adjustment to the recorded liability and landfill asset and (ii) a change in liability and asset amounts to be recorded prospectively over either the remaining permitted and expansion airspace (as defined below) of the related discrete final capping event or the remaining permitted and expansion airspace of the landfill, as appropriate. Any changes related to the capitalized and future cost of the landfill assets are then recognized in accordance with our landfill depletion policy, which would generally result in depletion expense being recognized prospectively over the remaining permitted and expansion airspace of the final capping event or the remaining permitted and expansion airspace of the landfill, as appropriate. Changes in such estimates associated with a fully consumed landfill result in an adjustment to the recorded liability and landfill assets with an immediate corresponding adjustment to landfill airspace depletion expense. Interest accretion on final capping, closure and post-closure liabilities is recorded using the effective interest method and is recorded as landfill operating costs, which is included in operating expenses within our Consolidated Statements of Operations. Depletion of Landfill Assets — The depletable basis of a landfill includes (i) amounts previously expended and capitalized; (ii) capitalized landfill final capping, closure and post-closure costs; (iii) projections of future purchase and development costs required to develop the landfill site to its remaining permitted and expansion airspace (as defined below) and (iv) projected asset retirement costs related to landfill final capping, closure and post-closure activities. Depletion is recorded on a units-of-consumption basis, applying expense as a rate per ton. The rate per ton is calculated by dividing each component of the depletable basis of a landfill by the number of tons needed to fill the corresponding asset’s airspace. For landfills that we do not own, but operate through lease or other contractual agreements, the rate per ton is calculated based on expected airspace to be utilized over the lesser of the contractual term of the underlying agreement or the life of the landfill. We apply the following guidelines in determining a landfill’s remaining permitted and expansion airspace:
| ● | Remaining Permitted Airspace — Our engineers, in consultation with third-party engineering consultants and surveyors, are responsible for determining remaining permitted airspace at our landfills. The remaining permitted airspace is determined by an annual survey, which is used to compare the existing landfill topography to the expected final landfill topography.
| ● | Expansion Airspace — We also include currently unpermitted expansion airspace in our estimate of remaining permitted and expansion airspace in certain circumstances. First, for unpermitted airspace to be initially included in our estimate of remaining permitted and expansion airspace, we must believe that obtaining the expansion permit is likely. Second, we must generally expect the initial expansion permit application to be submitted within one year and the final expansion permit to be received within five years, in addition to meeting the following criteria:
| ● | Personnel are actively working on the expansion of an existing landfill, including efforts to obtain land use and local, state or provincial approvals;
| ● | We have a legal right to use or obtain land to be included in the expansion plan;
| ● | There are no significant known technical, legal, community, business, or political restrictions or similar issues that could negatively affect the success of such expansion; and
| ● | Financial analysis has been completed based on conceptual design, and the results demonstrate that the expansion meets Company criteria for investment.
These criteria are evaluated by our field-based engineers, accountants, managers and others to identify potential obstacles to obtaining the permits. Once the unpermitted airspace is included, our policy provides that airspace may continue to be included in remaining permitted and expansion airspace even if certain of these criteria are no longer met as long as we continue to believe we will ultimately obtain the permit, based on the facts and circumstances of a specific landfill. In these circumstances, continued inclusion must be approved through a landfill-specific review process that includes approval by our Chief Financial Officer on a quarterly basis. Of the 16 landfill sites with expansions included as of December 31, 2023, two landfills required the Chief Financial Officer to approve the inclusion of the unpermitted airspace because the permit application process did not meet the one- or five-year requirements. When we include the expansion airspace in our calculations of remaining permitted and expansion airspace, we also include the projected costs for development, as well as the projected asset retirement costs related to final capping, closure and post-closure of the expansion in the depletable basis of the landfill. Once the remaining permitted and expansion airspace is determined in cubic yards, an airspace utilization factor (“AUF”) is established to calculate the remaining permitted and expansion capacity in tons. The AUF is established using the measured density obtained from previous annual surveys and is then adjusted to account for future settlement. The amount of settlement that is forecasted will consider several site-specific factors including current and projected mix of waste type, initial and projected waste density, estimated number of years of life remaining, depth of underlying waste, anticipated access to moisture through precipitation or recirculation of landfill leachate and operating practices. In addition, the initial selection of the AUF is subject to a subsequent multi-level review by our engineering group and the AUF used is reviewed on a periodic basis and revised as necessary. Our historical experience generally indicates that the impact of settlement at a landfill is greater later in the life of the landfill when the waste placed at the landfill approaches its highest point under the permit requirements. After determining the costs and remaining permitted and expansion capacity at each of our landfills, we determine the per ton rates that will be expensed as waste is received and deposited at the landfill by dividing the costs by the corresponding number of tons. We calculate per ton depletion rates for each landfill for assets associated with each final capping event, for assets related to closure and post-closure activities and for all other costs capitalized or to be capitalized in the future. These rates per ton are updated annually, or more often, as significant facts change. It is possible that actual results, including the amount of costs incurred, the timing of final capping, closure and post-closure activities, our airspace utilization or the success of our expansion efforts could ultimately turn out to be significantly different from our estimates and assumptions. To the extent that such estimates, or related assumptions, prove to be significantly different than actual results, lower earnings may be experienced due to higher depletion rates or higher expenses; or higher earnings may result if the opposite occurs. Most significantly, if it is determined that expansion capacity should no longer be considered in calculating the recoverability of a landfill asset, we may be required to recognize an asset impairment or incur significantly higher depletion expense. If at any time management makes the decision to abandon the expansion effort, the capitalized costs related to the expansion effort are expensed immediately.
Environmental Remediation Liabilities | Environmental Remediation Liabilities A significant portion of our operating costs and capital expenditures could be characterized as costs of environmental protection. The nature of our operations, particularly with respect to the construction, operation and maintenance of our landfills, subjects us to an array of laws and regulations relating to the protection of the environment. Under current laws and regulations, we may have liabilities for environmental damage caused by our operations, or for damage caused by conditions that existed before we acquired a site. In addition to remediation activity required by state or local authorities, such liabilities include potentially responsible party (“PRP”) investigations. The costs associated with these liabilities can include settlements, certain legal and consultant fees, as well as incremental internal and external costs directly associated with site investigation and clean up. Where it is probable that a liability has been incurred, we estimate costs required to remediate sites based on site-specific facts and circumstances. We routinely review and evaluate sites that require remediation and determine our estimated cost for the likely remedy based on a number of estimates and assumptions. Next, we review the same type of information with respect to other named and unnamed PRPs. Estimates of the costs for the likely remedy are then either developed using our internal resources or by third-party environmental engineers or other service providers. Internally developed estimates are based on:
| ● | Management’s judgment and experience in remediating our own and unrelated parties’ sites;
| ● | Information available from regulatory agencies as to costs of remediation;
| ● | The number, financial resources and relative degree of responsibility of other PRPs who may be liable for remediation of a specific site; and
| ● | The typical allocation of costs among PRPs, unless the actual allocation has been determined.
Estimating our degree of responsibility for remediation is inherently difficult. We recognize and accrue for an estimated remediation liability when we determine that such liability is both probable and reasonably estimable. Determining the method and ultimate cost of remediation requires that a number of assumptions be made. There can sometimes be a range of reasonable estimates of the costs associated with the likely site remediation alternatives identified in the environmental impact investigation. In these cases, we use the amount within the range that is our best estimate. If no amount within a range appears to be a better estimate than any other, we use the amount that is the low end of such range. If we used the high ends of such ranges (where estimable), our aggregate potential liability would be approximately $85 million higher than the $209 million recorded in the Consolidated Balance Sheet as of December 31, 2023. Our ultimate responsibility may differ materially from current estimates. It is possible that technological, regulatory or enforcement developments, the results of environmental studies, the inability to identify other PRPs, the inability of other PRPs to contribute to the settlements of such liabilities, or other factors could require us to record additional liabilities. Our ongoing review of our remediation liabilities, in light of relevant internal and external facts and circumstances, could result in revisions to our accruals that could cause upward or downward adjustments to our balance sheet and income from operations. These adjustments could be material in any given period. Where we believe that both the amount of a particular environmental remediation liability and the timing of the payments are fixed or reliably determinable, we inflate the cost in current dollars until the expected time of payment and discount the cost to present value using a risk-free discount rate, which is based on the rate for U.S. Treasury bonds with a term approximating the weighted average period until settlement of the underlying obligation.
Property and Equipment (exclusive of landfills) | Property and Equipment (exclusive of landfills, discussed above) We record property and equipment at cost. Expenditures for major additions and improvements are capitalized and maintenance activities are expensed as incurred. We depreciate property and equipment over the estimated useful life of the asset using the straight-line method. We generally assume no salvage value for our depreciable property and equipment. When property and equipment are retired, sold or otherwise disposed of, the cost and accumulated depreciation are removed from our accounts and any resulting gain or loss is included in results of operations as an offset or increase to operating expense for the period. The estimated useful lives for significant property and equipment categories are as follows (in years):
​ | ​ | ​
​ |  | Useful Lives
Vehicles — excluding rail haul cars |  | 3 to 10
Vehicles — rail haul cars |  | 10 to 30
Machinery and equipment (a) |  | 3 to 30
Buildings and improvements |  | 5 to 40
Furniture, fixtures and office equipment |  | 3 to 10
(a) | Includes recycling and renewable natural gas (“RNG”) facilities as well as containers.
Leases | Leases We lease property and equipment in the ordinary course of our business. Our operating lease activities primarily consist of leases for real estate, landfills and operating equipment. Our financing lease activities primarily consist of leases for operating equipment, railcars and landfill assets. Our leases have varying terms. Some may include renewal or purchase options, escalation clauses, restrictions, penalties or other obligations that we consider in determining minimum lease payments. The leases are classified as either operating leases or financing leases, as appropriate. Operating Leases (excluding landfill leases discussed below) — The majority of our leases are operating leases. This classification generally can be attributed to either (i) relatively low fixed minimum lease payments as a result of real property lease obligations that vary based on the volume of waste we receive or process or (ii) minimum lease terms that are much shorter than the assets’ economic useful lives. Management expects that in the normal course of business our operating leases will be renewed, replaced by other leases or replaced with fixed asset expenditures. Financing Leases (excluding landfill leases discussed below) — Assets under financing leases are capitalized using interest rates determined at the commencement of each lease and are depreciated over either the useful life of the asset or the lease term, as appropriate, on a straight-line basis. The present value of the related lease payments is recorded as a debt obligation. Landfill Leases — From an operating perspective, landfills that we lease are similar to landfills we own because generally we will operate the landfill for the life of the operating permit. The most significant portion of our rental obligations for landfill leases is contingent upon operating factors such as disposal volume and often there are no contractual minimum rental obligations. Contingent rental obligations are expensed as incurred. For landfill financing leases that provide for minimum contractual rental obligations, we record the present value of the minimum obligation as part of the landfill asset, which is depleted on a units-of-consumption basis over the shorter of the lease term or the life of the landfill. For operating and financing leases, including landfill leases, our rent expense for each of the last three years and future minimum lease payments are disclosed in Note 7.
Acquisitions | Acquisitions We generally recognize assets acquired and liabilities assumed in business combinations, including contingent assets and liabilities, based on fair value estimates as of the date of acquisition. Contingent Consideration — In certain acquisitions, we agree to pay additional amounts to sellers contingent upon achievement by the acquired businesses of certain negotiated goals, such as targeted revenue levels, targeted disposal volumes or the issuance of permits for expanded landfill airspace. We have recognized liabilities for these contingent obligations based on their estimated fair value as of the date of acquisition with any differences between the acquisition-date fair value, subsequent remeasurements and the ultimate settlement of the obligations being recognized as an adjustment to income from operations. Refer to Note 11 for adjustments recognized during the reported periods. Acquired Assets and Assumed Liabilities — Assets and liabilities arising from contingencies such as pre-acquisition environmental matters and litigation are recognized at their acquisition-date fair value when their respective fair values can be determined. If the fair values of such contingencies cannot be readily determined, they are recognized as of the acquisition date if the contingencies are probable and an amount can be reasonably estimated. Acquisition-date fair value estimates are revised as necessary if, and when, additional information regarding these contingencies becomes available to further define and quantify assets acquired and liabilities assumed. Subsequent to finalization of purchase accounting, these revisions are accounted for as adjustments to income from operations. All acquisition-related transaction costs are expensed as incurred. See Note 17 for additional information related to our acquisitions.
Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets | Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets Goodwill is the excess of our purchase cost over the fair value of the net assets of acquired businesses. We do not amortize goodwill, but as discussed in the Long-Lived Asset Impairments section below, we assess our goodwill for impairment at least annually. Other intangible assets consist primarily of customer and supplier relationships, covenants not-to-compete, licenses, permits (other than landfill permits, which are combined with landfill tangible assets and depleted per our landfill depletion policy), and other contracts. Other intangible assets are recorded at fair value on the acquisition date and are generally amortized using either a 150% declining balance approach or a straight-line basis as we determine appropriate. Customer and supplier relationships are typically amortized over terms of 10 to 15 years. Covenants not-to-compete are amortized over the term of the non-compete covenant, which is generally five years. Licenses, permits and other contracts are amortized over the definitive terms of the related agreements. If the underlying agreement does not contain definitive terms and the useful life is determined to be indefinite, the asset is not amortized.
Long-Lived Asset Impairments | Long-Lived Asset Impairments We assess our long-lived assets for impairment as required under the applicable accounting standards. If necessary, impairments are recorded in (gain) loss from divestitures, asset impairments and unusual items, net in our Consolidated Statements of Operations. Property and Equipment, Including Landfills and Definite-Lived Intangible Assets — We monitor the carrying value of our long-lived assets for potential impairment on an ongoing basis and test the recoverability of such assets generally using significant unobservable (“Level 3”) inputs whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that their carrying amounts may not be recoverable. These events or changes in circumstances, including management decisions pertaining to such assets, are referred to as impairment indicators. If an impairment indicator occurs, we perform a test of recoverability by comparing the carrying value of the asset or asset group to its undiscounted expected future cash flows. If cash flows cannot be separately and independently identified for a single asset, we will determine whether an impairment has occurred for the group of assets for which we can identify the projected cash flows. If the carrying values are in excess of undiscounted expected future cash flows, we measure any impairment by comparing the fair value of the asset or asset group to its carrying value and the difference is recorded in the period that the impairment indicator occurs. Fair value is generally determined by considering (i) internally developed discounted projected cash flow analysis of the asset or asset group; (ii) third-party valuations and/or (iii) information available regarding the current market for similar assets. Estimating future cash flows requires significant judgment and projections may vary from the cash flows eventually realized, which could impact our ability to accurately assess whether an asset has been impaired. The assessment of impairment indicators and the recoverability of our capitalized costs associated with landfills and related expansion projects require significant judgment due to the unique nature of the waste industry, the highly regulated permitting process and the sensitive estimates involved. During the review of a landfill expansion application, a regulator may initially deny the expansion application although the expansion permit is ultimately granted. In addition, management may periodically divert waste from one landfill to another to conserve remaining permitted landfill airspace, or a landfill may be required to cease accepting waste, prior to receipt of the expansion permit. However, such events occur in the ordinary course of business in the waste industry and do not necessarily result in impairment of our landfill assets because, after consideration of all facts, such events may not affect our belief that we will ultimately obtain the expansion permit. As a result, our tests of recoverability, which generally make use of a probability-weighted cash flow estimation approach, may indicate that no impairment loss should be recorded. Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets, Including Goodwill — At least annually using a measurement date of October 1, and more frequently if warranted, we assess our indefinite-lived intangible assets, including the goodwill of our reporting units, for impairment. We first perform a qualitative assessment to determine if it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying value. If the assessment indicates a possible impairment, we complete a quantitative review, comparing the estimated fair value of a reporting unit to its carrying amount, including goodwill. An impairment charge is recognized if the asset’s estimated fair value is less than its carrying amount. Fair value is typically estimated using an income approach using Level 3 inputs. However, when appropriate, we may also use a market approach. The income approach is based on the long-term projected future cash flows of the reporting units. We discount the estimated cash flows to present value using a weighted average cost of capital that considers factors such as market assumptions, the timing of the cash flows and the risks inherent in those cash flows. We believe that this approach is appropriate because it provides a fair value estimate based upon the reporting units’ expected long-term performance considering the economic and market conditions that generally affect our business. The market approach estimates fair value by measuring the aggregate market value of publicly-traded companies with similar characteristics to our business as a multiple of their reported earnings. We then apply that multiple to the reporting units’ earnings to estimate their fair values. We believe that this approach may also be appropriate in certain circumstances because it provides a fair value estimate using valuation inputs from entities with operations and economic characteristics comparable to our reporting units. Fair value is computed using several factors, including projected future operating results, economic projections, anticipated future cash flows, comparable marketplace data and the cost of capital. There are inherent uncertainties related to these factors and to our judgment in applying them in our analysis. However, we believe our methodology for estimating the fair value of our reporting units is reasonable. Refer to Note 11 for information related to impairments recognized during the reported periods.
Insured and Self-Insured Claims | Insured and Self-Insured Claims We have retained a significant portion of the risks related to our health and welfare, general liability, automobile liability and workers’ compensation claims programs. For our self-insured portions, the exposure for unpaid claims and associated expenses, including incurred but not reported losses, is based on an actuarial valuation or internal estimates. The gross estimated liability associated with settling unpaid claims is included in accrued liabilities in our Consolidated Balance Sheets if expected to be settled within one year; otherwise, it is included in other long-term liabilities. Estimated insurance recoveries related to recorded liabilities are reflected as other current receivables or other long-term assets in our Consolidated Balance Sheets when we believe that the receipt of such amounts is probable. We use a wholly-owned insurance captive to insure the deductibles for our general liability, automobile liability and workers’ compensation claims programs. We continue to maintain conventional insurance policies with third-party insurers. WMI pays an annual premium to the insurance captive on behalf of WMI and its insured subsidiaries, typically in the first quarter of the year, for estimated losses based on an external actuarial analysis. These premiums are held in a restricted funds account to be used solely for paying insurance claims, resulting in a transfer of risk from our Company to the insurance captive, and are allocated between current and long-term assets depending on estimated timing of the use of funds.
Restricted Funds | Restricted Funds Our restricted funds accounts primarily consist of funds deposited for purposes of funding insurance claims and settling landfill final capping, closure, post-closure and environmental remediation obligations. These funds are generally allocated between cash, money market funds, equity securities and available-for-sale debt securities depending on the estimated timing and purpose of the use of funds. We use a wholly-owned insurance captive to insure the deductibles for certain claims programs and the premiums paid are directly deposited into a restricted funds account to be used solely for paying insurance claims. At several of our landfills, we provide financial assurance by depositing cash into restricted trust funds for purposes of settling final capping, closure, post-closure and environmental remediation obligations. Balances maintained in these restricted funds accounts will fluctuate based on (i) changes in statutory requirements; (ii) future deposits made to comply with contractual arrangements; (iii) the ongoing use of funds; (iv) acquisitions or divestitures and (v) changes in the fair value of the financial instruments held in the restricted funds accounts. See Notes 16 and 18 for additional discussion related to restricted funds accounts for final capping, closure, post-closure or environmental remediation obligations.
Investments in Unconsolidated Entities | Investments in Unconsolidated Entities Investments in unconsolidated entities over which the Company has significant influence are accounted for under the equity method of accounting. Equity investments in which the Company does not have the ability to exert significant influence over the investees’ operating and financing activities are measured using a quantitative approach as these investments do not have readily determinable fair values. The quantitative approach, or measurement alternative, is equal to its cost minus impairment, if any, plus or minus changes resulting from observable price changes in orderly transactions for the identical or a similar investment of the same issuer. The fair value of our redeemable preferred stock has been measured based on third-party investors’ recent or pending transactions in these securities, which are considered the best evidence of fair value. The following table summarizes our investments in unconsolidated entities as of December 31 (in millions):
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ |  | 2023 |  | 2022
Equity method investments | ​ | $ | 538 | ​ | $ | 460
Investments without readily determinable fair values | ​ |  | 68 | ​ | ​ | 62
Redeemable preferred stock | ​ |  | — | ​ | ​ | 56
Investments in unconsolidated entities | ​ | $ | 606 | ​ | $ | 578
​ We monitor and assess the carrying value of our investments throughout the year for potential impairment and write them down to their fair value when other-than-temporary declines exist. Fair value is generally based on (i) other third-party investors’ recent or pending transactions in the securities; (ii) other information available regarding the current market for similar assets; (iii) a market or income approach, as deemed appropriate and/or (iv) a quantitative approach, or measurement alternative, as noted above. Impairments of our investments are recorded in (gain) loss from divestitures, asset impairments and unusual items, net in our Consolidated Statements of Operations in accordance with appropriate accounting guidance. Refer to Note 11, Note 12 and Note 16 for information related to impairments and other adjustments recognized during the reported periods.
Foreign Currency | Foreign Currency Our operations are primarily in the U.S. but we also have significant operations in Canada. Additionally, we have certain support functions in India. Local currencies generally are considered the functional currencies of our operations and investments outside the U.S. The assets and liabilities of our foreign operations are translated to U.S. dollars using the exchange rate as of the balance sheet date. Revenues and expenses are translated to U.S. dollars using the average exchange rate during the period. The resulting translation difference is reflected as a component of other comprehensive income (loss). Foreign currency translation adjustments have primarily been impacted by fluctuations in the U.S. dollar/Canadian dollar exchange rate which was 1.3243 at December 31, 2023, 1.3554 at December 31, 2022 and 1.2639 at December 31, 2021. Refer to Note 12 for information regarding the impacts of foreign currency on our comprehensive income and results of operations.
Revenue Recognition | Revenue Recognition We generally recognize revenue as services are performed or products are delivered. For example, revenue typically is recognized as waste is collected, tons are received at our landfills or transfer stations, or recycling commodities are collected or delivered as product. We bill for certain services prior to performance. Such services include, among others, certain commercial and residential contracts, and equipment rentals. These advanced billings are included in deferred revenues and recognized as revenue in the period service is provided. Our Collection and Disposal operating revenues are primarily generated from fees charged for our collection, transfer and disposal. Revenues from our collection operations are influenced by factors such as collection frequency, type of collection equipment furnished, type and volume or weight of the waste collected, distance to the disposal facility or recycling facility and our disposal costs. Revenues from our landfill operations consist of tipping fees, which are generally based on the type and weight or volume of waste being disposed of at our disposal facilities. Fees charged at transfer stations are generally based on the weight or volume of waste deposited, considering our cost of loading, transporting and disposing of the solid waste at a disposal site. The fees we charge for our services generally include applicable fees, such as our energy surcharge, which are intended to pass through to customers direct and indirect costs incurred. Recycling Processing and Sales revenues generally consist of tipping fees and the sale of recycling commodities to and/or on behalf of third parties. Our WM Renewable Energy revenue is primarily generated from (i) the sale of captured and converted landfill methane gas; (ii) the sale of Renewable Identification Numbers (“RINs”) under the Renewable Fuel Standard (“RFS”) program implemented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (“EPA”); (iii) sale of Low Carbon Fuel credits designed to stimulate the use of low-carbon fuels and (iv) the sale of energy (electricity and capacity) and associated Renewable Energy Credits (“RECs”). See Note 19 for additional information related to revenue by reportable segment and major lines of business. Deferred Revenues We record deferred revenues when cash payments are received or due in advance of our performance and classify them as current since they are earned within a year and there are no significant financing components. Substantially all our deferred revenues during the reported periods are realized as revenues within one to three months, when the related services are performed. Contract Acquisition Costs Our incremental direct costs of obtaining a contract, which consist primarily of sales incentives, are generally deferred and amortized to selling, general and administrative expense over the estimated life of the relevant customer relationship, ranging from five to 13 years. Contract acquisition costs that are paid to the customer are deferred and amortized as a reduction in revenue over the contract life. Our contract acquisition costs are classified as current or noncurrent based on the timing of when we expect to recognize amortization and are included in other assets in our Consolidated Balance Sheets. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, we had $207 million and $192 million of deferred contract costs, respectively, of which $148 million and $137 million, respectively, were related to deferred sales incentives. During each of the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, we amortized $26 million, $24 million and $23 million, respectively, of sales incentives to selling, general and administrative expense. Long-Term Contracts Approximately 20% of our total revenue is derived from contracts with a remaining term greater than one year. The consideration for these contracts is primarily variable in nature. The variable elements of these contracts primarily include the number of homes and businesses served and annual rate changes based on consumer price index, fuel prices or other operating costs. Such contracts are generally within our collection, recycling and other lines of business and have a weighted average remaining contract life of approximately four years. We do not disclose the value of unsatisfied performance obligations for these contracts as our right to consideration corresponds directly to the value provided to the customer for services completed to date and all future variable consideration is allocated to wholly unsatisfied performance obligations.
Capitalized Interest | Capitalized Interest We capitalize interest on certain projects under development, including landfill expansion projects, certain assets under construction, including operating landfills and landfill gas-to-energy projects and internal-use software. During 2023, 2022 and 2021, total interest costs were $590 million, $425 million and $388 million, respectively, of which $63 million, $29 million and $13 million was capitalized in 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.
Income Taxes | Income Taxes The Company is primarily subject to income tax in the U.S. and Canada. Current tax obligations associated with our income tax expense are reflected in the accompanying Consolidated Balance Sheets as a component of accrued liabilities and our deferred tax obligations are reflected in deferred income taxes. Deferred income taxes are based on the difference between the financial reporting and tax basis of assets and liabilities. Deferred income tax expense represents the change during the reporting period in the deferred tax assets and liabilities, net of the effect of acquisitions and dispositions. Deferred tax assets include tax loss and credit carry-forwards and are reduced by a valuation allowance if, based on available evidence, it is more likely than not that some portion or all of the deferred tax assets will not be realized. We establish reserves for uncertain tax positions when, despite our belief that our tax return positions are supportable, we believe that certain positions may be challenged and potentially disallowed. When facts and circumstances change, we adjust these reserves through our income tax expense. Should interest and penalties be assessed by taxing authorities on any underpayment of income tax, such amounts would be accrued and classified as a component of our income tax expense in our Consolidated Statements of Operations. See Note 8 for discussion of our income taxes.
Contingent Liabilities | Contingent Liabilities We estimate the amount of potential exposure we may have with respect to claims, assessments and litigation in accordance with authoritative guidance on accounting for contingencies. We are party to pending or threatened legal proceedings covering a wide range of matters in various jurisdictions. It is difficult to predict the outcome of litigation, as it is subject to many uncertainties. Additionally, it is not always possible for management to make a meaningful estimate of the potential loss or range of loss associated with such contingencies. See Note 10 for discussion of our commitments and contingencies.
Supplemental Cash Flow Information | Supplemental Cash Flow Information The following table shows supplemental cash flow information for the year ended December 31 (in millions):
​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​ | ​
​ |  | 2023 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Interest, net of capitalized interest | ​ | $ | 447 | ​ | $ | 348 | ​ | $ | 387
Income taxes (a) | ​ |  | 636 | ​ |  | 736 | ​ |  | 370
(a) | The increase in income taxes paid in 2022 is primarily due to the increase in pre-tax book income during 2022 and a deposit of approximately $103 million made to the Internal Revenue Service (“IRS”) in the fourth quarter of 2022 related to a disputed tax matter for which we expect to seek a refund. See Note 8 for further discussion.
During 2023, we had $276 million of non-cash financing activities primarily from our low-income housing investment and new financing leases, which are discussed further in Notes 6 and 8. During 2022, we had $225 million of non-cash financing activities primarily from our low-income housing investment and new financing leases. Additionally, we had approximately $25 million and $135 million of non-cash investing activities related to non-cash consideration transferred as part of our acquisitions in 2023 and 2022, respectively. See Note 17 for further discussion of our 2022 acquisitions. During 2021, we had $30 million of non-cash financing activities from new financing leases. Non-cash investing and financing activities are generally excluded from the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows.

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- Definition Disclosure of accounting policy for investment in financial asset. + References Reference 1: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 944 -SubTopic 220 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section S99 -Paragraph 1 -Subparagraph (SX 210.7-04(3)(b)) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147483586/944-220-S99-1 Reference 2: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 946 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section S99 -Paragraph 3 -Subparagraph (SX 210.6-03(d)) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479886/946-10-S99-3 Reference 3: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 946 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section S99 -Paragraph 3 -Subparagraph (SX 210.6-03(f)(1)) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479886/946-10-S99-3 Reference 4: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 946 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section S99 -Paragraph 3 -Subparagraph (SX 210.6-03(f)(2)) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479886/946-10-S99-3 Reference 5: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 946 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section S99 -Paragraph 3 -Subparagraph (SX 210.6-03(f)(3)) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479886/946-10-S99-3 Reference 6: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 946 -SubTopic 320 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section S99 -Paragraph 12 -Subparagraph (i) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147480032/946-320-S99-12 Reference 7: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 946 -SubTopic 320 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section S99 -Paragraph 19 -Subparagraph (2) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147480032/946-320-S99-19 + Details
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- Definition Disclosure of accounting policy for leasing arrangement entered into by lessee. + References Reference 1: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 842 -SubTopic 20 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 1 -Subparagraph (b) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147478964/842-20-50-1 + Details
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- Definition Disclosure of accounting policy for reclassification affecting comparability of financial statement. Excludes amendment to accounting standards, other change in accounting principle, and correction of error. + References Reference 1: http://www.xbrl.org/2009/role/commonPracticeRef -Topic 205 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 1 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147483504/205-10-50-1 + Details
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- Definition Disclosure of accounting policy for long-lived, physical asset used in normal conduct of business and not intended for resale. Includes, but is not limited to, work of art, historical treasure, and similar asset classified as collections. + References Reference 1: http://fasb.org/us-gaap/role/ref/legacyRef -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 1 -SubTopic 10 -Topic 360 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147482099/360-10-50-1 Reference 2: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 944 -SubTopic 210 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section S99 -Paragraph 1 -Subparagraph (SX 210.7-03(a)(8)(a)) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479440/944-210-S99-1 Reference 3: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 6 -SubTopic 360 -Topic 958 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147480321/958-360-50-6 Reference 4: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 1 -Subparagraph (d) -SubTopic 360 -Topic 958 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147480321/958-360-50-1 + Details
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- Definition Disclosure of accounting policy for receivable. Includes, but is not limited to, accounts receivable and financing receivable. + References Reference 1: http://www.xbrl.org/2009/role/commonPracticeRef -Topic 310 -SubTopic 20 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 4 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147481569/310-20-50-4 Reference 2: http://www.xbrl.org/2009/role/commonPracticeRef -Topic 310 -SubTopic 20 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 1 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147481569/310-20-50-1 Reference 3: http://www.xbrl.org/2009/role/commonPracticeRef -Topic 310 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 2 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147481962/310-10-50-2 Reference 4: http://www.xbrl.org/2009/role/commonPracticeRef -Topic 310 -SubTopic 20 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 2 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147481569/310-20-50-2 + Details
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- Definition Disclosure of accounting policy for revenue from contract with customer. + References Reference 1: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 606 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 17 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479806/606-10-50-17 Reference 2: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 606 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 19 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479806/606-10-50-19 Reference 3: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 606 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 18 -Subparagraph (a) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479806/606-10-50-18 Reference 4: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 606 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 18 -Subparagraph (b) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479806/606-10-50-18 Reference 5: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 606 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 20 -Subparagraph (a) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479806/606-10-50-20 Reference 6: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 606 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 20 -Subparagraph (b) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479806/606-10-50-20 Reference 7: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 606 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 20 -Subparagraph (c) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479806/606-10-50-20 Reference 8: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 606 -SubTopic 10 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 20 -Subparagraph (d) -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147479806/606-10-50-20 Reference 9: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/exampleRef -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 4 -Subparagraph (e) -SubTopic 10 -Topic 235 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147483426/235-10-50-4 Reference 10: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Topic 606 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//606/tableOfContent + Details
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- Definition Disclosure of accounting policy for estimating the ultimate cost of settling insurance claims relating to insured events that have occurred on or before a particular date (ordinarily, the statement of financial position date). The estimated liability includes the amount of money that will be required for future payments of (a) claims that have been reported to the insurer, (b) claims related to insured events that have occurred but that have not been reported to the insurer as of the date the liability is estimated, and (c) claim adjustment expenses. Claims adjustment expenses include costs incurred in the claim settlement process such as legal fees; outside adjuster fees; and costs to record, process, and adjust claims. + References Reference 1: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 944 -SubTopic 40 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 4 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147480081/944-40-50-4 Reference 2: http://www.xbrl.org/2003/role/disclosureRef -Topic 944 -SubTopic 40 -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Section 50 -Paragraph 1 -Publisher FASB -URI https://asc.fasb.org//1943274/2147480081/944-40-50-1 + Details
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