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Summary of Significant Accounting Policies | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2017
Accounting Policies [Abstract] |
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies | 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies Terms Used in Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements ASC - Accounting Standards Codification. ASC Topic 606 - ASU No. 2014-09, Revenue from Contracts with Customers. ASU - Accounting Standards Update. FASB - The Financial Accounting Standards Board. GAAP - U.S. generally accepted accounting principles. IRC - Internal Revenue Code. IRS - Internal Revenue Service. Underwriting enterprises - Insurance companies, reinsurance companies and various other forms of risk-taking entities, including intermediaries of underwriting enterprises. VIE - Variable interest entity. Nature of Operations Arthur J. Gallagher & Co. and its subsidiaries, collectively referred to herein as we, our, us or the company, provide insurance brokerage, consulting and third party claims settlement and administration services to both domestic and international entities through three reportable operating segments. Our brokers, agents and administrators act as intermediaries between underwriting enterprises and our clients. Our brokerage segment operations provide brokerage and consulting services to companies and entities of all types, including commercial, not-for-profit, and public entities, and, to a lesser extent, individuals, in the areas of insurance placement, risk of loss management, and management of employer sponsored benefit programs. Our risk management segment operations provide contract claim settlement, claim administration, loss control services and risk management consulting for commercial, not-for-profit, captive and public entities, and various other organizations that choose to self-insure property/casualty coverages or choose to use a third-party claims management organization rather than the claim services provided by underwriting enterprises. The corporate segment reports the financial information related to our debt, clean energy investments, external acquisition-related expenses and other corporate costs. Clean energy investments consist of our investments in limited liability companies that own 34 commercial clean coal production facilities that produce refined coal using Chem-Mod LLC’s proprietary technologies. We believe these operations produce refined coal that qualifies for tax credits under IRC Section 45. We do not assume underwriting risk on a net basis, other than with respect to de minimis amounts necessary to provide minimum or regulatory capital amounts to organize captives, pools, specialized underwriters or risk-retention groups. Rather, capital necessary for events of loss coverages is provided by underwriting enterprises. Investment income and other revenues are generated from our premium financing operations and our investment portfolio, which includes our invested cash and restricted cash we hold on behalf of our clients, as well as clean energy investments. We are headquartered in Rolling Meadows, Illinois, have operations in 32 countries and offer client-service capabilities in more than 150 countries globally through a network of correspondent insurance brokers and consultants. Basis of Presentation The accompanying consolidated financial statements include our accounts and all of our majority-owned subsidiaries (50% or greater ownership). Substantially all of our investments in partially owned entities in which our ownership is less than 50% are accounted for using the equity method based on the legal form of our ownership interest and the applicable ownership percentage of the entity. However, in situations where a less than 50%-owned investment has been determined to be a VIE and we are deemed to be the primary beneficiary in accordance with the variable interest model of consolidation, we will consolidate the investment into our consolidated financial statements. For partially owned entities accounted for using the equity method, our share of the net earnings of these entities is included in consolidated net earnings. All material intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation. In the preparation of our consolidated financial statements as of December 31, 2017, management evaluated all material subsequent events or transactions that occurred after the balance sheet date through the date on which the financial statements were issued for potential recognition in our consolidated financial statements and/or disclosure in the notes thereto. Use of Estimates The preparation of our consolidated financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the amounts reported in the financial statements and accompanying notes. These accounting principles require us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and revenues and expenses, and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of our consolidated financial statements. We are also required to make certain judgments and estimates that affect the disclosed amounts of revenues and expenses related to the potential impact of the adoption of and future accounting under ASC Topic 606. We periodically evaluate our estimates and assumptions, including those relating to the valuation of goodwill and other intangible assets, investments (including our IRC Section 45 investments), income taxes, stock-based compensation, claims handling obligations, retirement plans, litigation and contingencies. We base our estimates on historical experience and various assumptions that we believe to be reasonable based on specific circumstances. Such estimates and assumptions could change in the future as more information becomes known, which could impact the amounts reported and disclosed herein. Revenue Recognition Our revenues are derived from commissions and fees as primarily specified in a written contract, or unwritten business understanding, with our clients or underwriting enterprises. We also recognize investment income over time from our invested assets and invested assets we hold on behalf of our clients or underwriting enterprises. Brokerage segment Our brokerage segment generates revenues by:
| (i) | Identifying, negotiating and placing all forms of insurance or reinsurance coverages, as well as providing risk-shifting, risk-sharing and risk-mitigation consulting services, principally related to property/casualty, life, health, welfare and disability insurance. We also provide these services through, or in conjunction with, other unrelated agents and brokers, consultants and management advisors.
| (ii) | Acting as an agent or broker for multiple underwriting enterprises by providing services such as sales, marketing, selecting, negotiating, underwriting, servicing and placing insurance coverage on their behalf.
| (iii) | Providing consulting services related to health and welfare benefits, voluntary benefits, executive benefits, compensation, retirement planning, institutional investment and fiduciary, actuarial, compliance, private insurance exchange, human resource technology, communications, and benefits administration.
| (iv) | Providing management and administrative services to captives, pools, risk-retention groups, healthcare exchanges, small underwriting enterprises, such as accounting, claims and loss processing assistance, feasibility studies, actuarial studies, data analytics and other administrative services.
The vast majority of our brokerage contracts and service understandings are for a period of one year or less. Commissions and fees The primary source of brokerage segment revenues are commissions from underwriting enterprises, which are based on a percentage of premiums paid by our clients, or fees received from clients, which are based on an agreed level of service with our clients, usually in lieu of commissions. Commissions are fixed at the contract effective date and generally are based on a percentage of premiums for insurance coverage or employee head count for employer sponsored benefit plans. Commissions depend upon a large number of factors, including the type of risk being placed, the particular underwriting enterprise’s demand, the expected loss experience of the particular risk of coverage, and historical benchmarks surrounding the level of effort necessary for us to place and service the insurance contract. Fees are rarely tied to the amount of premiums; instead, they are based on an expected level of effort to provide our services. We recognize commission and fee revenues at the later of the billing or the effective date of the related insurance policies, net of an allowance for estimated policy cancellations. We recognize commission revenues related to installment premiums as the installments are billed. We recognize commissions on premiums directly billed by underwriting enterprises as revenue when we have obtained the data necessary to reasonably determine such amounts. Historically, we have not been able to reasonably determine these types of commission revenues until we have received the cash or the related policy detail or other specific information from the underwriting enterprise. Commissions on premiums billed directly by underwriting enterprises to the insureds generally relate to: (i) a large number of property/casualty insurance policy transactions, each with small premiums, and (ii) the number of enrolled employees in employer sponsored plans in our employee benefit brokerage operations. Under these direct bill arrangements, the underwriting enterprise controls the entire billing and policy issuance process. We record the income effects of subsequent premium adjustments when the adjustments become known. Fee revenues generated from the brokerage segment primarily relate to fees negotiated in lieu of commissions that we recognize in the same manner as commission revenues. We recognize these fee revenues ratably as the services are rendered, and record the income effects of subsequent fee adjustments when the adjustments become known. For consulting and advisory services, we recognize our revenue in the period in which we provide the service or advice. For management and administrative services, our revenue is recognized ratably over the contract period consistent with the performance of our obligations, mostly over an annual term. Supplemental revenues Certain underwriting enterprises may pay us additional revenues based on the volume of premium we place with them and for insights into our sales pipeline, our sales capabilities or our risk selection knowledge. These amounts are in excess of the commission and fee revenues discussed above, and not all business we place with underwriting enterprises is eligible for supplemental revenues. Unlike contingent revenues, discussed below, these revenues are a fixed amount or fixed percent of premium of the underlying eligible insurance contracts. We recognize supplemental revenues using internal data and information received from underwriting enterprises that allows us to reasonably estimate the supplemental revenues earned in the period. Contingent revenues Certain underwriting enterprises may pay us additional revenues for our sales capabilities, our risk selection knowledge, or our administrative efficiencies. These amounts are in excess of the commission revenues discussed above, and not all business we place with participating underwriting enterprises is eligible for contingent revenues. Unlike supplemental revenues, discussed above, these revenues are variable, generally based on growth, the loss experience of the underlying insurance contracts, and/or our efficiency in processing the business. We generally operate under calendar year contracts, but we do not receive these contingent revenues from the underwriting enterprises until the following calendar year, generally in the first and second quarters, after verification of the performance indicators outlined in the contracts. We recognize contingent revenues as revenue when we have obtained the data necessary to reasonably determine such amounts. Historically we have not been able to reasonably determine these types of revenues until we have received the cash or the related policy detail or other underwriting enterprise specific information from the underwriting enterprise. Sub-brokerage costs Sub-brokerage costs are excluded from our gross revenues in our determination of our total revenues. Sub-brokerage costs represent commissions paid to sub-brokers related to the placement of certain business by our brokerage segment operations. We recognize this contra revenue in the same manner as the commission revenue to which it relates. Risk Management segment Revenues for our risk management segment are comprised of fees generally negotiated (i) on a per-claim basis, (ii) on a cost-plus basis, or (iii) as performance-based fees. We also provide risk management consulting services that are recognized as the services are delivered. Per-claim fees Where we operate under a contract where our fee is established on a per-claim basis, our obligation is to process claims for a term specified within the contract, which we provide over a period of time. We recognize these fee revenues ratably as the services are rendered, and record the income effects of subsequent fee adjustments when the adjustments become known. Cost-plus fees Where we provide services and generate revenues on a cost-plus basis, we recognize revenue over the contract period. Performance-based fees Certain clients pay us additional fee revenues for our efficiency in managing claims or on the basis of claim outcome effectiveness. These amounts are in excess of the fee revenues discussed above. These revenues are variable, generally based on various performance metrics of the underlying contracts. We generally operate under multi-year contracts with fiscal year measurement periods. We do not receive these fees, if earned, until the following year after verification of the performance metrics outlined in the contracts. Each period we base our estimates on a contract-by-contract basis. Investment income Investment income primarily includes interest and dividend income (including interest income from our premium financing operations), which is accrued as it is earned. Gains on books of business sales represent one-time gains related to sales of brokerage related businesses, which are primarily recognized on a cash received basis. Revenues from clean coal activities include revenues from consolidated clean coal production plants, royalty income from clean coal licenses and income (loss) related to unconsolidated clean coal production plants, all of which are recognized as earned. Revenues from consolidated clean coal production plants represent sales of refined coal. Royalty income from clean coal licenses represents fee income related to the use of clean coal technologies. Income (loss) from unconsolidated clean coal production plants includes losses related to our equity portion of the pretax results of the clean coal production plants. Claims Handling Obligations We are obligated under certain circumstances to provide future claims handling and certain administrative services for our former global risks brokerage clients in the U.K. Our obligation is the result of following the industry practice of insurance brokers providing future claims handling and administrative services to former clients. In addition, under certain circumstances, our risk management segment operations are contractually obligated to provide contract claim settlement and administration services to our former clients. Accordingly, we record a liability for these deferred run-offobligations based on the estimated costs to provide these future services to former clients. This liability is based on estimates and assumptions using historical data to project future experience. Such estimates and assumptions could change in the future as more information becomes known which could impact the amounts reported and disclosed herein. We periodically review (at least annually) the adequacy of this liability and will make adjustments as necessary. Earnings per Share Basic net earnings per share is computed by dividing net earnings by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding during the reporting period. Diluted net earnings per share is computed by dividing net earnings by the weighted average number of common and common equivalent shares outstanding during the reporting period. Common equivalent shares include incremental shares from dilutive stock options, which are calculated from the date of grant under the treasury stock method using the average market price for the period. Cash and Cash Equivalents Short-term investments, consisting principally of cash and money market accounts that have average maturities of 90 days or less, are considered cash equivalents. Restricted Cash In our capacity as an insurance broker, we collect premiums from insureds and, after deducting our commissions and/or fees, remit these premiums to underwriting enterprises. We hold unremitted insurance premiums in a fiduciary capacity until we disburse them, and the use of such funds is restricted by laws in certain states and foreign jurisdictions in which our subsidiaries operate. Various state and foreign agencies regulate insurance brokers and provide specific requirements that limit the type of investments that may be made with such funds. Accordingly, we invest these funds in cash and U.S. Treasury fund accounts. We can earn interest income on these unremitted funds, which is included in investment income in the accompanying consolidated statement of earnings. These unremitted amounts are reported as restricted cash in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet, with the related liability reported as premiums payable to underwriting enterprises. Additionally, several of our foreign subsidiaries are required by various foreign agencies to meet certain liquidity and solvency requirements. We were in compliance with these requirements at December 31, 2017. Related to our third party administration business and in certain of our brokerage operations, we are responsible for client claim funds that we hold in a fiduciary capacity. We do not earn any interest income on the funds held. These client funds have been included in restricted cash, along with a corresponding liability in premiums payable to underwriting enterprises in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet. Premiums and fees receivable Premiums and fees receivable in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet are net of allowances for estimated policy cancellations and doubtful accounts. The allowance for estimated policy cancellations was $7.4 million and $7.1 million at December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively, which represents a reserve for future reversals in commission and fee revenues related to the potential cancellation of client insurance policies that were in force as of each year end. The allowance for doubtful accounts was $13.5 million and $12.8 million at December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively. We establish the allowance for estimated policy cancellations through a charge to revenues and the allowance for doubtful accounts through a charge to operating expenses. Both of these allowances are based on estimates and assumptions using historical data to project future experience. Such estimates and assumptions could change in the future as more information becomes known which could impact the amounts reported and disclosed herein. We periodically review the adequacy of these allowances and make adjustments as necessary. Derivative Instruments We are exposed to market risks, including changes in foreign currency exchange rates and interest rates. To manage the risk related to these exposures, we enter into various derivative instruments that reduce these risks by creating offsetting exposures In the normal course of business, we are exposed to the impact of foreign currency fluctuations that impact our results of operations and cash flows. We utilize a foreign currency risk management program involving foreign currency derivatives that consist of several monthly put/call options designed to hedge a portion of our future foreign currency disbursements through various future payment dates. To mitigate the counterparty credit risk we only enter into contracts with major financial institutions based upon their credit ratings and other factors. These derivative instrument contracts are cash flow hedges that qualify for hedge accounting and primarily hedge against fluctuations between changes in the GBP and Indian Rupee versus the U.S. dollar. Changes in fair value of the derivative instruments are reflected in other comprehensive earnings in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet. The impact of the hedge at maturity is recognized in the income statement as a component of investment income, compensation and operating expenses depending on the nature of the hedged item. We enter into various long term debt agreements. We use interest rate derivatives, typically swaps, to reduce our exposure to the effects of interest rate fluctuations on the forecasted interest rates for up to two years into the future. These derivative instrument contracts are periodically monitored for hedge ineffectiveness, the amount of which has not been material to the accompanying consolidated financial statements. We do not use derivatives for trading or speculative purposes. Premium Financing Seven subsidiaries of the brokerage segment make short-term loans (generally with terms of twelve months or less) to our clients to finance premiums. These premium financing contracts are structured to minimize potential bad debt expense to us. Such receivables are generally considered delinquent after seven days of the payment due date. In normal course, insurance policies are cancelled within one month of the contractual payment due date if the payment remains delinquent. We recognize interest income as it is earned over the life of the contract using the “level-yield” method. Unearned interest related to contracts receivable is included in the receivable balance in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet. The outstanding loan receivable balance was $305.5 million and $241.2 million at December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively. Fixed Assets We carry fixed assets at cost, less accumulated depreciation, in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet. We periodically review long-lived assets for impairment whenever events or changes in business circumstances indicate that the carrying value of the assets may not be recoverable. Under those circumstances, if the fair value were less than the carrying amount of the asset, we would recognize a loss for the difference. Depreciation for fixed assets is computed using the straight-line method over the following estimated useful lives:
|  | Useful Life
Office equipment |  | Three to ten years
Furniture and fixtures |  | Three to ten years
Computer equipment |  | Three to five years
Building |  | Fifteen to forty years
Software |  | Three to five years
Refined fuel plants |  | Ten years
Leasehold improvements |  | Shorter of the lease term or useful life of the asset
Intangible Assets Intangible assets represent the excess of cost over the estimated fair value of net tangible assets of acquired businesses. Our primary intangible assets are classified as either goodwill, expiration lists, non-compete agreements or trade names. Expiration lists, non-compete agreements and trade names are amortized using the straight-line method over their estimated useful lives (three to fifteen years for expiration lists, three to five years for non-compete agreements and five to fifteen years for trade names), while goodwill is not subject to amortization. The establishment of goodwill, expiration lists, non-compete agreements and trade names and the determination of estimated useful lives are primarily based on valuations we receive from qualified independent appraisers. The calculations of these amounts are based on estimates and assumptions using historical and projected financial information and recognized valuation methods. Different estimates or assumptions could produce different results. We carry intangible assets at cost, less accumulated amortization, in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet. We review all of our intangible assets for impairment periodically (at least annually for goodwill) and whenever events or changes in business circumstances indicate that the carrying value of the assets may not be recoverable. We perform such impairment reviews at the division (i.e., reporting unit) level with respect to goodwill and at the business unit level for amortizable intangible assets. In reviewing intangible assets, if the fair value were less than the carrying amount of the respective (or underlying) asset, an indicator of impairment would exist and further analysis would be required to determine whether or not a loss would need to be charged against current period earnings as a component of amortization expense. Based on the results of impairment reviews in 2017, 2016 and 2015, we wrote off $6.2 million, $1.8 million and $11.5 million, respectively, of amortizable intangible assets primarily related to prior year acquisitions of our brokerage segment, which is included in amortization expense in the accompanying consolidated statement of earnings. The determinations of impairment indicators and fair value are based on estimates and assumptions related to the amount and timing of future cash flows and future interest rates. Such estimates and assumptions could change in the future as more information becomes known which could impact the amounts reported and disclosed herein. Income Taxes Our tax rate reflects the statutory tax rates applicable to our taxable earnings and tax planning in the various jurisdictions in which we operate. Significant judgment is required in determining the annual effective tax rate and in evaluating uncertain tax positions. We report a liability for unrecognized tax benefits resulting from uncertain tax positions taken or expected to be taken in our tax return. We evaluate our tax positions using a two-step process. The first step involves recognition. We determine whether it is more likely than not that a tax position will be sustained upon tax examination based solely on the technical merits of the position. The technical merits of a tax position are derived from both statutory and judicial authority (legislation and statutes, legislative intent, regulations, rulings and case law) and their applicability to the facts and circumstances of the position. If a tax position does not meet the “more likely than not” recognition threshold, we do not recognize the benefit of that position in the financial statements. The second step is measurement. A tax position that meets the “more likely than not” recognition threshold is measured to determine the amount of benefit to recognize in the financial statements. The tax position is measured as the largest amount of benefit that has a likelihood of greater than 50% of being realized upon ultimate resolution with a taxing authority. Uncertain tax positions are measured based upon the facts and circumstances that exist at each reporting period and involve significant management judgment. Subsequent changes in judgment based upon new information may lead to changes in recognition, derecognition and measurement. Adjustments may result, for example, upon resolution of an issue with the taxing authorities, or expiration of a statute of limitations barring an assessment for an issue. We recognize interest and penalties, if any, related to unrecognized tax benefits in our provision for income taxes. Tax law requires certain items to be included in our tax returns at different times than such items are reflected in the financial statements. As a result, the annual tax expense reflected in our consolidated statements of earnings is different than that reported in our tax returns. Some of these differences are permanent, such as expenses that are not deductible in our tax returns, and some differences are temporary and reverse over time, such as depreciation expense and amortization expense deductible for income tax purposes. Temporary differences create deferred tax assets and liabilities. Deferred tax liabilities generally represent tax expense recognized in the financial statements for which a tax payment has been deferred, or expense which has been deducted in the tax return but has not yet been recognized in the financial statements. Deferred tax assets generally represent items that can be used as a tax deduction or credit in tax returns in future years for which a benefit has already been recorded in the financial statements. We establish or adjust valuation allowances for deferred tax assets when we estimate that it is more likely than not that future taxable income will be insufficient to fully use a deduction or credit in a specific jurisdiction. In assessing the need for the recognition of a valuation allowance for deferred tax assets, we consider whether it is more likely than not that some portion, or all, of the deferred tax assets will not be realized and adjust the valuation allowance accordingly. We evaluate all significant available positive and negative evidence as part of our analysis. Negative evidence includes the existence of losses in recent years. Positive evidence includes the forecast of future taxable income by jurisdiction, tax-planning strategies that would result in the realization of deferred tax assets and the presence of taxable income in prior carryback years. The underlying assumptions we use in forecasting future taxable income require significant judgment and take into account our recent performance. Such estimates and assumptions could change in the future as more information becomes known which could impact the amounts reported and disclosed herein. The ultimate realization of deferred tax assets depends on the generation of future taxable income during the periods in which temporary differences are deductible or creditable. Fair Value of Financial Instruments Fair value accounting establishes a framework for measuring fair value, which is defined as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date (i.e., an exit price). This framework includes a fair value hierarchy that prioritizes the inputs to the valuation technique used to measure fair value. The classification of a financial instrument within the valuation hierarchy is based upon the transparency of inputs to the valuation of an asset or liability on the measurement date. The three levels of the hierarchy in order of priority of inputs to the valuation technique are defined as follows:
| • |  | Level 1 - Valuations are based on unadjusted quoted prices in active markets for identical financial instruments;
| • |  | Level 2 - Valuations are based on quoted market prices, other than quoted prices included in Level 1, in markets that are not active or on inputs that are observable either directly or indirectly for the full term of the financial instrument; and
| • |  | Level 3 - Valuations are based on pricing or valuation techniques that require inputs that are both unobservable and significant to the overall fair value measurement of the financial instrument. Such inputs may reflect management’s own assumptions about the assumptions a market participant would use in pricing the financial instrument.
The level in the fair value hierarchy within which the fair value measurement is classified is determined based on the lowest level input that is significant to the fair value measure in its entirety. The carrying amounts of financial assets and liabilities reported in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet for cash and cash equivalents, restricted cash, premiums and fees receivable, premiums payable to underwriting enterprises, accrued salaries and bonuses, accounts payable and other accrued liabilities, unearned fees and income taxes payable, at December 31, 2017 and 2016, approximate fair value because of the short-term duration of these instruments. See Note 3 to these consolidated financial statements for the fair values related to the establishment of intangible assets and the establishment and adjustment of earnout payables. See Note 7 to these consolidated financial statements for the fair values related to borrowings outstanding at December 31, 2017 and 2016 under our debt agreements. See Note 12 to these consolidated financial statements for the fair values related to investments at December 31, 2017 and 2016 under our defined benefit pension plan. Litigation We are the defendant in various legal actions related to claims, lawsuits and proceedings incident to the nature of our business. We record liabilities for loss contingencies, including legal costs (such as fees and expenses of external lawyers and other service providers) to be incurred, when it is probable that a liability has been incurred on or before the balance sheet date and the amount of the liability can be reasonably estimated. We do not discount such contingent liabilities. To the extent recovery of such losses and legal costs is probable under our insurance programs, we record estimated recoveries concurrently with the losses recognized. Significant management judgment is required to estimate the amounts of such contingent liabilities and the related insurance recoveries. In order to assess our potential liability, we analyze our litigation exposure based on available information, including consultation with outside counsel handling the defense of these matters. As these liabilities are uncertain by their nature, the recorded amounts may change due to a variety of different factors, including new developments in, or changes in approach, such as changing the settlement strategy as applicable to each matter. Retention bonus arrangements In connection with the hiring and retention of both new talent and experienced personnel, including our senior management, brokers and other key personnel, we have entered into various agreements with key employees setting up the conditions for the cash payment of certain retention bonuses. These bonuses are an incentive for these employees to remain with the company, for a fixed period of time, to allow us to capitalize on their knowledge and experience. We have various forms of retention bonus arrangements; some are paid up front and some are paid at the end of the term, but all are contingent upon successfully completing a minimum period of employment. A retention bonus that is paid to an employee upfront that is contingent on a certain minimum period of employment, will be initially classified as a prepaid asset and amortized to compensation expense as the future services are rendered over the duration of the stay period. A retention bonus that is paid to an employee at the end of the term that is contingent on a certain minimum period of employment, will be accrued as a liability through compensation expense as the future services are rendered over the duration of the stay period. If an employee leaves prior to the required time frame to earn the retention bonus outright, then all or any portion that is ultimately unearned or refundable, and recovered by the company if prepaid, is forfeited and reversed through compensation expense. Stock-Based Compensation We have several employee equity-settled and cash-settled share-based compensation plans. Equity-settled share-based payments to employees include grants of stock options, performance stock units and restricted stock units and are measured based on estimated grant date fair value. We have elected to use the Black-Scholes option pricing model to determine the fair value of stock options on the dates of grant. Performance stock units are measured on the probable outcome of the performance conditions applicable to each grant. Restricted stock units are measured based on the fair market values of the underlying stock on the dates of grant. Shares are issued on the vesting dates net of the minimum statutory tax withholding requirements, as applicable, to be paid by us on behalf of our employees. As a result, the actual number of shares issued will be fewer than the actual number of performance stock units and restricted stock units outstanding. Furthermore, we record the liability for withholding amounts to be paid by us as a reduction to additional paid-in capital when paid. Cash-settled share-based payments to employees include awards under our Performance Unit Program and stock appreciation rights. The fair value of the amount payable to employees in respect of cash-settled share-based payments is recognized as compensation expense, with a corresponding increase in liabilities, over the vesting period. The liability is remeasured at each reporting date and at settlement date. Any changes in fair value of the liability are recognized as compensation expense. We recognize share-based compensation expense over the requisite service period for awards expected to ultimately vest. Forfeitures are estimated on the date of grant and revised if actual or expected forfeiture activity differs from original estimates. Employee Stock Purchase Plan We have an employee stock purchase plan (which we refer to as the ESPP), under which the sale of 8.0 million shares of our common stock has been authorized. Eligible employees may contribute up to 15% of their compensation towards the quarterly purchase of our common stock at a purchase price equal to 95% of the lesser of the fair market value of our common stock on the first business day or the last business day of the quarterly offering period. Eligible employees may annually purchase shares of our common stock with an aggregate fair market value of up to $25,000 (measured as of the first day of each quarterly offering period of each calendar year), provided that no employee may purchase more than 2,000 shares of our common stock under the ESPP during any calendar year. At December 31, 2017, 7.2 million shares of our common stock was reserved for future issuance under the ESPP. Defined Benefit Pension and Other Postretirement Plans We recognize in our consolidated balance sheet, an asset for our defined benefit postretirement plans’ overfunded status or a liability for our plans’ underfunded status. We recognize changes in the funded status of our defined benefit postretirement plans in comprehensive earnings in the year in which the changes occur. We use December 31 as the measurement date for our plans’ assets and benefit obligations. See Note 12 to these consolidated financial statements for additional information required to be disclosed related to our defined benefit postretirement plans.

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