Restructuring and Other Initiatives

We have executed various restructuring and other initiatives and we may execute additional initiatives in the future, if necessary, to streamline manufacturing capacity and other costs to improve the utilization of remaining facilities. To the extent these programs involve voluntary separations, no liabilities are generally recorded until offers to employees are accepted. If employees are involuntarily terminated, a liability is generally recorded at the communication date. Related charges are recorded in Automotive and other cost of sales and Automotive and other selling, general and administrative expense. The following table summarizes the reserves and charges related to restructuring and other initiatives, including postemployment benefit reserves and charges:



	Three Months Ended						Nine Months Ended
	September 30, 2018			September 30, 2017			September 30, 2018			September 30, 2017
Balance at beginning of period	$	274		$	493		$	227		$	268
Additions, interest accretion and other	8			43			600			333
Payments	(72		)	(75		)	(567		)	(150		)
Revisions to estimates and effect of foreign currency	(3		)	(7		)	(53		)	3
Balance at end of period	$	207		$	454		$	207		$	454

In the nine months ended September 30, 2018 restructuring and other initiatives primarily included the closure of a facility and other restructuring actions in Korea. We recorded charges of $1.0 billion related to Korea in GMI, net of noncontrolling interests in the nine months ended September 30, 2018. These charges consisted of $537 million in non-cash asset impairments and other charges, not reflected in the table above, and $495 million in employee separation charges, which are reflected in the table above, in the nine months ended September 30, 2018. We incurred $748 million in cash outflows resulting from these Korea restructuring actions primarily for employee separations and statutory pension payments in the nine months ended September 30, 2018.

In the nine months ended September 30, 2017 restructuring and other initiatives primarily included restructuring actions announced in the three months ended June 30, 2017 in GMI. These actions related primarily to the withdrawal of Chevrolet from the Indian and South African markets at the end of 2017 and the transition of our South Africa manufacturing operations to Isuzu Motors. We continue to manufacture vehicles in India for sale to certain export markets. We recorded charges of $460 million in GMI primarily consisting of $297 million of asset impairments, sales incentives, inventory provisions and other charges, not reflected in the table above, and $163 million of dealer restructurings, employee separations and other contract cancellation costs, which are reflected in the table above. We completed these programs in GMI in 2017. Other GMI restructuring programs reflected in the table above include separation and other programs in Australia, Korea and India and the withdrawal of the Chevrolet brand from Europe. Collectively, these programs had a total cost since inception in 2013 of $883 million through September 30, 2017 and $892 million through the completion of the programs in the year ended December 31, 2017.