Restructuring and Other Initiatives

We have and continue to execute various restructuring and other initiatives and we may execute additional initiatives in the future, if necessary, to streamline manufacturing capacity and other costs to improve the utilization of remaining facilities. To the extent these programs involve voluntary separations, a liability is generally recorded at the time offers to employees are accepted. To the extent these programs provide separation benefits in accordance with pre-existing agreements, a liability is recorded once the amount is probable and reasonably estimable. If employees are involuntarily terminated, a liability is generally recorded at the communication date. Related charges are recorded in Automotive and other cost of sales and Automotive and other selling, general and administrative expense. The following table summarizes the reserves and charges related to restructuring and other initiatives, including postemployment benefit reserves and charges:



	Years Ended December 31,
	2018			2017			2016
Balance at beginning of period	$	227		$	268		$	383
Additions, interest accretion and other	1,637			330			412
Payments	(600		)	(315		)	(490		)
Revisions to estimates and effect of foreign currency	(142		)	(56		)	(37		)
Balance at end of period	$	1,122		$	227		$	268

In the year ended December 31, 2018 restructuring and other initiatives in GMNA primarily included actions related to the unallocation of products to certain manufacturing facilities in 2019 and other employee separation programs. We recorded charges of $1.2 billion in GMNA in the year ended December 31, 2018 consisting of $941 million in employee separation and other charges, which are reflected in the table above, and $301 million primarily in non-cash accelerated depreciation, not reflected in the table above. We expect to incur additional restructuring and other charges in 2019 that range between $1.5 billion to $2.0 billion, primarily related to accelerated depreciation, supplier-related charges, and employee-related separation charges. We expect cash outflows related to these activities of approximately $1.5 billion by the end of 2020.

In the year ended December 31, 2018 restructuring and other initiatives in GMI primarily included the closure of a facility and other restructuring actions in Korea and employee separation programs. We recorded charges of $1.0 billion related to Korea, net of noncontrolling interests. These charges consisted of $537 million in non-cash asset impairments and other charges, not reflected in the table above, and $495 million in employee separation charges, which are reflected in the table above. We incurred $775 million in cash outflows resulting from Korea restructuring actions, primarily for employee separations and statutory pension payments. In GMI we expect to incur between $200 million and $300 million in additional employee separation and other charges in 2019, and we expect cash outflows related to previously announced restructuring activities of approximately $300 million in 2019.

In the year ended December 31, 2017 restructuring and other initiatives primarily included restructuring actions announced in the three months ended June 30, 2017 in GMI. These actions related primarily to the withdrawal of Chevrolet from the Indian and South African markets at the end of 2017 and the transition of our South Africa manufacturing operations to Isuzu Motors. We continue to manufacture vehicles in India for sale to certain export markets. We recorded charges of $460 million in GMI primarily consisting of $297 million of asset impairments, sales incentives, inventory provisions and other charges, not reflected in the table above, and $163 million of dealer restructurings, employee separations and other contract cancellation costs, which are reflected in the table above. We completed these programs in GMI in 2017. Other GMI restructuring programs reflected in the table above include separation and other programs in Australia, Korea and India and the withdrawal of the Chevrolet brand from Europe. Collectively, these programs had a total cost of $892 million since inception in 2013 through the completion of the programs in the year ended December 31, 2017.

In the year ended December 31, 2016 restructuring and other initiatives related primarily to charges of $240 million in the three months ended March 31, 2016 in GMNA related to the cash severance incentive program to qualified U.S. hourly employees under our 2015 labor agreement with the UAW and insignificant costs for separation and other programs in Australia, Korea and India and the withdrawal of Chevrolet brand from Europe.