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Income Taxes - Deferred Tax Assets and Liabilities (Details) - USD ($) $ in Millions | Dec. 31, 2019 | Dec. 31, 2018
--- | --- | ---
Deferred tax assets |  |
Postretirement benefits other than pensions | $ 1,695 | $ 1,584
Pension and other employee benefit plans | 2,968 | 3,020
Warranties, dealer and customer allowances, claims and discounts | 6,299 | 6,307
Miscellaneous | 1,965 | 2,034
Total deferred tax assets before valuation allowances | 34,379 | 33,105
Less: valuation allowances | (8,135) | (7,976)
Total deferred tax assets | 26,244 | 25,129
Deferred tax liabilities |  |
Property, plant and equipment | 1,565 | 1,098
Intangible assets | 763 | 729
Total deferred tax liabilities | 2,328 | 1,827
Net deferred tax assets | 23,916 | 23,302
U.S. |  |
Deferred tax assets |  |
U.S. capitalized research expenditures | 6,035 | 5,176
Operating loss and tax credit carryforwards | 8,686 | 8,591
Deferred tax liabilities |  |
Operating loss and tax credit carryforwards subject to expiration | 8,700 |
Non-U.S. |  |
Deferred tax assets |  |
Operating loss and tax credit carryforwards | 6,731 | 6,393
Deferred tax liabilities |  |
Operating loss and tax credit carryforwards subject to expiration | 1,300 |
Operating loss and tax credit carryforwards not subject to expiration | 5,400 |
Germany, Spain and South Korea |  |
Deferred tax assets |  |
Less: valuation allowances | $ (8,100) | $ (8,000)

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