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Pensions And Other Postretirement Benefits
 12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2023
Retirement Benefits [Abstract]  
Pensions and Other Postretirement Benefits Pensions and Other Postretirement Benefits
Employee Pension and Other Postretirement Benefit Plans

Defined Benefit Pension Plans Defined benefit pension plans covering eligible U.S. hourly employees (hired prior to October 2007) and Canadian hourly employees (hired prior to October 2016) generally provide benefits of negotiated, stated amounts for each year of service and supplemental benefits for employees who retire with 30 years of service before normal retirement age. The benefits provided by the defined benefit pension plans covering eligible U.S. (hired prior to January 1, 2001) and Canadian salaried employees and employees in certain other non-U.S. locations are generally based on years of service and compensation history. Accrual of defined pension benefits ceased in 2012 for U.S. and Canadian salaried employees. There is also an unfunded nonqualified pension plan primarily covering U.S. executives for service prior to January 1, 2007 and it is based on an “excess plan” for service after that date.

The funding policy for qualified defined benefit pension plans is to contribute annually not less than the minimum required by applicable laws and regulations or to directly pay benefit payments where appropriate. In the year ended December 31, 2023, all legal funding requirements were met. The following table summarizes contributions made to the defined benefit pension plans:
Years Ended December 31,
202320222021
U.S. hourly and salaried$357 $71 $67 
Non-U.S.395 332 371 
Total$753 $403 $438 

We expect to make insignificant contributions to our U.S. pension plans and up to $700 million in contributions to our non-U.S. pension plans in 2024.

Other Postretirement Benefit Plans Certain hourly and salaried defined benefit plans provide postretirement medical, dental, legal service and life insurance to eligible U.S. and Canadian retirees and their eligible dependents. Certain other non-U.S. subsidiaries have postretirement benefit plans, although most non-U.S. employees are covered by government sponsored or administered programs. We made contributions to the U.S. OPEB plans of $295 million, $335 million and $351 million in the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021. Plan participants' contributions were insignificant in the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021.

Defined Contribution Plans We have defined contribution plans for eligible U.S. salaried and hourly employees that provide discretionary matching contributions. Contributions are also made to certain non-U.S. defined contribution plans. We made contributions to our defined contribution plans of $742 million, $724 million and $606 million in the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021.

Significant Plan Amendments, Benefit Modifications and Related Events

Other Remeasurements As part of our collective bargaining agreement with the UAW in 2023 we amended the U.S. Hourly Pension Plan to increase the monthly basic benefit by $5.00 a month for active plan members and to provide an annual contribution of $500 to eligible retirees and surviving spouses for the duration of the contract. These changes increased our pension obligation by $791 million.
Pension and OPEB Obligations and Plan Assets
Year Ended December 31, 2023Year Ended December 31, 2022
Pension BenefitsGlobal OPEB PlansPension BenefitsGlobal OPEB Plans
U.S. Non-U.S. U.S. Non-U.S.
Change in benefit obligations
Beginning benefit obligation$44,817 $12,582 $4,543 $60,208 $18,314 $6,124 
Service cost103 161 9 161 146 16 
Interest cost2,273 551 236 1,292 293 148 
Amendments795 17 — — — — 
Actuarial (gains) losses1,185 453 204 (12,010)(3,797)(1,289)
Benefits paid(4,186)(1,001)(371)(4,239)(955)(410)
Foreign currency translation adjustments— 453 32 — (1,361)(69)
Curtailments, settlements and other(506)(76)48 (595)(58)23 
Ending benefit obligation44,481 13,140 4,701 44,817 12,582 4,543 
Change in plan assets
Beginning fair value of plan assets44,901 9,530 — 59,921 13,521 — 
Actual return on plan assets1,829 640 — (10,258)(2,257)— 
Employer contributions357 395 348 71 332 387 
Benefits paid(4,186)(1,001)(371)(4,239)(955)(410)
Foreign currency translation adjustments— 354 — — (1,024)— 
Settlements and other(614)(99)23 (594)(87)23 
Ending fair value of plan assets42,287 9,819 — 44,901 9,530 — 
Ending funded status$(2,194)$(3,321)$(4,701)$84 $(3,052)$(4,543)
Amounts recorded in the consolidated balance sheets
Non-current assets$— $1,557 $— $1,557 $1,552 $— 
Current liabilities(62)(330)(356)(62)(316)(350)
Non-current liabilities(2,132)

(4,548)(4,345)(1,411)(4,288)(4,193)
Net amount recorded$(2,194)$(3,321)$(4,701)$84 $(3,052)$(4,543)
Amounts recorded in Accumulated other comprehensive loss
Net actuarial loss$(3,372)$(2,560)$(332)$(1,186)$(2,157)$(86)
Net prior service (cost) credit(793)(74)8 5 (56)10 
Total recorded in Accumulated other comprehensive loss$(4,165)$(2,634)$(324)$(1,181)$(2,213)$(76)

In the year ended December 31 2023, the actuarial loss included in the benefit obligations was primarily due to a decrease in the discount rates. In the year ended December 31 2022, the actuarial gain included in the benefit obligations was primarily due to an increase in the discount rates.
The following table summarizes the total accumulated benefit obligations (ABO), the ABO and fair value of plan assets for defined benefit pension plans with ABO in excess of plan assets, and the projected benefit obligation (PBO) and fair value of plan assets for defined benefit pension plans with PBO in excess of plan assets:
December 31, 2023December 31, 2022
U.S. Non-U.S. U.S. Non-U.S.
ABO$44,464 $13,050 $44,798 $12,505 
Plans with ABO in excess of plan assets
ABO$44,464 $4,863 $5,668 $4,739 
Fair value of plan assets$42,287 $74 $4,214 $211 
Plans with PBO in excess of plan assets
PBO$44,481 $4,953 $5,687 $4,815 
Fair value of plan assets$42,287 $74 $4,214 $211 

The following table summarizes the components of net periodic pension and OPEB expense along with the assumptions used to determine benefit obligations:

Year Ended December 31, 2023Year Ended December 31, 2022Year Ended December 31, 2021
Pension BenefitsGlobal OPEB PlansPension BenefitsGlobal OPEB PlansPension BenefitsGlobal OPEB Plans
U.S. Non-U.S. U.S. Non-U.S. U.S. Non-U.S.
Components of expense
Service cost$173$173$9$233$157$16$260$121$18
Interest cost2,2735512361,2922931481,074236123
Expected return on plan assets(2,922)(573)—(3,000)(534)—(3,178)(610)—
Amortization of net actuarial (gains) losses—32(23)18133672621297
Curtailments, settlements and other126332(17)10(5)157(6)
Net periodic pension and OPEB (income) expense$(350)$216$224$(1,474)$59$226$(1,803)$(34)$232
Weighted-average assumptions used to determine benefit obligations(a)
Discount rate5.12 %4.41 %5.13 %5.47 %4.85 %5.51 %2.78 %2.13 %2.97 %
Weighted-average assumptions used to determine net expense(a)
Discount rate5.37 %5.33 %5.48 %2.34 %2.98 %2.84 %1.86 %2.38 %2.24 %
Expected rate of return on plan assets6.30 %5.65 %N/A5.38 %4.39 %N/A5.63 %4.67 %N/A
__________
(a)    The rate of compensation increase and the cash balance interest crediting rates do not have a significant effect on our U.S. pension and OPEB plans.

The non-service cost components of the net periodic pension and OPEB income are presented in Interest income and other non-operating income, net. Refer to Note 19 for additional information.

U.S. pension plan service cost, which includes administrative expenses and Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation premiums, were insignificant for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021. Weighted-average assumptions used to determine net expense are determined at the beginning of the period and updated for remeasurements. Non-U.S. pension plan administrative expenses included in service cost were insignificant in the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021.
Assumptions

Investment Strategies and Long-Term Rate of Return Detailed periodic studies are conducted by our internal asset management group as well as outside actuaries and are used to determine the long-term strategic mix among asset classes, risk mitigation strategies and the expected long-term ROA assumptions for the U.S. pension plans. The U.S. study includes a review of alternative asset allocation and risk mitigation strategies, anticipated future long-term performance and risk of the individual asset classes that comprise the plans' asset mix. Similar studies are performed for the significant non-U.S. pension plans with the assistance of outside actuaries and asset managers. While the studies incorporate data from recent plan performance and historical returns, the expected rate of return on plan assets represents our estimate of long-term prospective rates of return.

We continue to pursue various options to fund and to manage risk in our pension plans, including continued changes to the pension asset portfolio mix to manage funded status volatility. The strategic asset mix and risk mitigation strategies for the plans are tailored specifically for each plan. Individual plans have distinct liabilities, liquidity needs and regulatory requirements. Consequently, there are different investment policies set by individual plan fiduciaries. Although investment policies and risk mitigation strategies may differ among plans, each investment strategy is considered to be appropriate in the context of the specific factors affecting each plan.

In setting new strategic asset mixes, consideration is given to the likelihood that the selected asset mixes will effectively fund the projected pension plan liabilities, while aligning with the risk tolerance of the plans' fiduciaries. The strategic asset mixes for U.S. defined benefit pension plans are increasingly designed to satisfy the competing objectives of improving funded positions (market value of assets equal to or greater than the present value of the liabilities) and mitigating the possibility of a deterioration in funded status.

Derivatives may be used to provide cost effective solutions for rebalancing investment portfolios, increasing or decreasing exposure to various asset classes and for mitigating risks, primarily interest rate, equity and currency risks. Equity and fixed income managers are permitted to utilize derivatives as efficient substitutes for traditional securities. Interest rate derivatives may be used to adjust portfolio duration to align with a plan's targeted investment policy and equity derivatives may be used to protect equity positions from downside market losses. Alternative investment managers are permitted to employ leverage, including through the use of derivatives, which may alter economic exposure.

In December 2023, an investment policy study was completed for the U.S. pension plans. As a result, the weighted-average long-term rate of ROA remains unchanged at 6.3% at December 31, 2023 and 2022. The expected long-term rate of return on plan assets used in determining pension expense for non-U.S. plans is determined in a similar manner to the U.S. plans.

Target Allocation Percentages The following table summarizes the target allocations by asset category for U.S. and non-U.S. defined benefit pension plans:
December 31, 2023December 31, 2022
U.S.Non-U.S.U.S.Non-U.S.
Equity11 %10 %8 %10 %
Debt60 %75 %69 %75 %
Other(a)29 %15 %23 %15 %
Total100 %100 %100 %100 %
__________
(a)    Primarily includes private equity, real estate and absolute return strategies, which mainly consist of hedge funds.
Assets and Fair Value Measurements The following tables summarize the fair value of U.S. and non-U.S. defined benefit pension plan assets by asset class:
December 31, 2023December 31, 2022
Level 1Level 2Level 3TotalLevel 1Level 2Level 3Total
U.S. Pension Plan Assets
Common and preferred stocks$850 $— $— $850 $1,222 $— $3 $1,225 
Government and agency debt securities(a)— 9,822 — 9,822 — 9,606 — 9,606 
Corporate and other debt securities— 20,957 3 20,960 — 21,816 — 21,816 
Other investments, net(b)545 (269)328 604 125 60 254 439 
Net plan assets subject to leveling$1,395 $30,510 $331 32,236 $1,347 $31,482 $257 33,086 
Plan assets measured at net asset value
Investment funds5,322 5,124 
Private equity and debt investments2,864 3,936 
Real estate investments2,976 3,491 
Total plan assets measured at net asset value11,162 12,551 
Other plan assets (liabilities), net(c)(1,111)(736)
Net plan assets$42,287 $44,901 

December 31, 2023December 31, 2022
Level 1Level 2Level 3TotalLevel 1Level 2Level 3Total
Non-U.S. Pension Plan Assets
Common and preferred stocks$160 $— $— $160 $143 $— $— $143 
Government and agency debt securities(a)— 2,310 — 2,310 — 2,185 — 2,185 
Corporate and other debt securities— 2,738 7 2,745 — 2,570 1 2,571 
Other investments, net(b)(d)(4)(55)43 (16)24 (70)84 38 
Net plan assets subject to leveling$156 $4,993 $50 5,199 $167 $4,685 $85 4,937 
Plan assets measured at net asset value
Investment funds3,265 3,124 
Private equity and debt investments431 483 
Real estate investments781 878 
Total plan assets measured at net asset value4,477 4,485 
Other plan assets (liabilities), net(c)143 108 
Net plan assets$9,819 $9,530 
__________
(a)Includes U.S. and sovereign government and agency issues.
(b)Includes net derivative assets (liabilities).
(c)Cash held by the plans, net of amounts receivable/payable for unsettled security transactions and payables for investment manager fees, custody fees and other expenses.
(d)Level 2 Other investments, net includes Canadian repurchase agreements of approximately $137 million and $150 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022.

The activity attributable to U.S. and non-U.S. Level 3 defined benefit pension plan investments was insignificant in the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022.

Investment Fund Strategies Investment funds include hedge funds, funds of hedge funds, equity funds and fixed income funds. Hedge funds and funds of hedge funds managers typically seek to achieve their objectives by allocating capital across a broad array of funds and/or investment managers. Equity funds invest in U.S. common and preferred stocks as well as similar equity securities issued by companies incorporated, listed or domiciled in developed and/or emerging market countries. Fixed income funds include investments in high quality funds and, to a lesser extent, high yield funds. High quality fixed income
funds invest in government securities, investment-grade corporate bonds and mortgage and asset-backed securities. High yield fixed income funds invest in high yield fixed income securities issued by corporations, which are rated below investment grade. Other investment funds also included in this category primarily represent multi-strategy funds that invest in broadly diversified portfolios of equity, fixed income and derivative instruments.

Private equity and debt investments primarily consist of investments in private equity and debt funds. These investments provide exposure to and benefit from long-term equity investments in private companies, including leveraged buy-outs, venture capital and distressed debt strategies.

Real estate investments include funds that invest in entities that are primarily engaged in the ownership, acquisition, development, financing, sale and/or management of income-producing real estate properties, both commercial and residential. These funds typically seek long-term growth of capital and current income that is above average relative to public equity funds.

Significant Concentrations of Risk The assets of the pension plans include certain investment funds, private equity and debt investments and real estate investments. Investment managers may be unable to quickly sell or redeem some or all of these investments at an amount close or equal to fair value in order to meet a plan's liquidity requirements or to respond to specific events such as deterioration in the creditworthiness of any particular issuer or counterparty.

Illiquid investments held by the plans are generally long-term investments that complement the long-term nature of pension obligations and are not used to fund benefit payments when currently due. Plan management monitors liquidity risk on an ongoing basis and has procedures in place that are designed to maintain flexibility in addressing plan-specific, broader industry and market liquidity events.

The pension plans may invest in financial instruments denominated in foreign currencies and may be exposed to risks that the foreign currency exchange rates might change in a manner that has an adverse effect on the value of the foreign currency denominated assets or liabilities. Forward currency contracts may be used to manage and mitigate foreign currency risk.

The pension plans may invest in debt securities for which any change in the relevant interest rates for particular securities might result in an investment manager being unable to secure similar returns upon the maturity or the sale of securities. In addition, changes to prevailing interest rates or changes in expectations of future interest rates might result in an increase or decrease in the fair value of the securities held. Interest rate swaps and other financial derivative instruments may be used to manage interest rate risk.

Benefit Payments Benefits for most U.S. pension plans and certain non-U.S. pension plans are paid out of plan assets rather than our Cash and cash equivalents. The following table summarizes net benefit payments expected to be paid in the future, which include assumptions related to estimated future employee service:
Pension BenefitsGlobal OPEB Plans
U.S. PlansNon-U.S. Plans
2024$4,405 $1,071 $365 
2025$4,213 $955 $361 
2026$4,110 $929 $357 
2027$3,995 $909 $353 
2028$3,846 $892 $350 
2029–2033
$16,966 $4,225 $1,699