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Income Taxes
 12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2024
Income Tax Disclosure [Abstract]  
Income Taxes Income Taxes
Years Ended December 31,
202420232022
U.S. income (loss)$9,729 $6,388 $9,454 
Non-U.S. income (loss)3,465 3,535 1,306 
Income (loss) before income taxes and equity income (loss)$13,194 $9,924 $10,760 
Years Ended December 31,
202420232022
Current income tax expense (benefit)
U.S. federal$202 $240 $389 
U.S. state and local309 490 368 
Non-U.S.676 874 707 
Total current income tax expense (benefit)1,188 1,605 1,464 
Deferred income tax expense (benefit)
U.S. federal891 (120)263 
U.S. state and local101 (43)109 
Non-U.S.376 (878)53 
Total deferred income tax expense (benefit)1,368 (1,041)425 
Total income tax expense (benefit)$2,556 $563 $1,888 

The Non-U.S. deferred income tax benefit in the year ended December 31, 2023 relates primarily to the release of a valuation allowance in Korea.

Provisions are made for estimated U.S. and non-U.S. income taxes which may be incurred on the reversal of our basis differences in investments in foreign subsidiaries and corporate joint ventures not deemed to be indefinitely reinvested. Taxes have not been provided on basis differences in investments primarily as a result of earnings in foreign subsidiaries which are deemed indefinitely reinvested of $6.1 billion and $4.3 billion at December 31, 2024 and 2023. We have indefinitely reinvested basis differences related to investments in non-consolidated China JVs of $1.4 billion and $3.4 billion at December 31, 2024 and 2023 as a result of fresh-start reporting. Quantification of the deferred tax liability, if any, associated with indefinitely reinvested basis differences is not practicable. Refer to Note 8 for additional information regarding the decrease in our basis differences related to investments in nonconsolidated affiliates from fresh-start reporting.
Years Ended December 31,
202420232022
Income tax expense at U.S. federal statutory income tax rate$2,771 $2,084 $2,260 
State and local tax expense (benefit)323 348 388 
Non-U.S. income taxed at other than the U.S. federal statutory tax rate130 203 32 
U.S. tax impact on Non-U.S. income and activities(49)(62)5 
Change in valuation allowances46 (1,061)(392)
Change in tax laws9 25 78 
General business credits and manufacturing incentives(906)(966)(829)
Settlements of prior year tax matters— 23 — 
Realization of basis differences in affiliates(45)— 209 
Foreign currency remeasurement73 (62)36 
Other adjustments204 31 102 
Total income tax expense (benefit)$2,556 $563 $1,888 
Deferred Income Tax Assets and Liabilities Deferred income tax assets and liabilities at December 31, 2024 and 2023 reflect the effect of temporary differences between amounts of assets, liabilities and equity for financial reporting purposes and the bases of such assets, liabilities and equity as measured based on tax laws, as well as tax loss and tax credit carryforwards. The following table summarizes the components of temporary differences and carryforwards that give rise to deferred tax assets and liabilities:
December 31, 2024December 31, 2023
Deferred tax assets
Postretirement benefits other than pensions$1,024 $1,119 
Pension and other employee benefit plans1,421 1,522 
Warranties, dealer and customer allowances, claims and discounts4,215 3,684 
U.S. capitalized research expenditures10,111 9,879 
U.S. operating loss and tax credit carryforwards(a)6,582 6,033 
Non-U.S. operating loss and tax credit carryforwards(b)5,239 6,204 
Miscellaneous4,302 5,121 
Total deferred tax assets before valuation allowances32,894 33,562 
Less: valuation allowances(6,529)(6,979)
Total deferred tax assets26,365 26,583 
Deferred tax liabilities
Property, plant and equipment5,111 4,233 
Intangible assets635 699 
Total deferred tax liabilities5,746 4,932 
Net deferred tax assets$20,619 $21,651 
__________
(a)At December 31, 2024, U.S. operating loss deferred tax assets were $411 million, where $129 million can be carried forward indefinitely and $282 million will expire by 2042, if not utilized. At December 31, 2024, U.S. tax credit carryforwards were $6.2 billion, where $462 million can be carried forward indefinitely and $5.7 billion will expire by 2044, if not utilized.
(b)At December 31, 2024, Non-U.S. operating loss deferred tax assets were $5.2 billion, where $4.8 billion can be carried forward indefinitely and $342 million will expire by 2044, if not utilized. At December 31, 2024, Non-U.S. tax credit carryforwards were $68 million, where $45 million can be carried forward indefinitely and $23 million will expire by 2043, if not utilized.

Valuation Allowances As a result of improving profitability in the Korean operating business evidenced by cumulative earnings in recent years and the completion of our near-and long-term business plans in the three months ended December 31, 2023 that forecasted continuing profitability, we determined that it was more likely than not that future earnings would be sufficient to realize the deferred tax assets in Korea. Accordingly, we released Korea's $870 million valuation allowance during 2023 resulting in an income tax benefit.

During the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023, valuation allowances against deferred tax assets of $6.5 billion and $7.0 billion were comprised of cumulative losses, credits and other timing differences, primarily in Germany, Spain, the U.S. and Brazil.
Uncertain Tax Positions The following table summarizes activity of the total amounts of unrecognized tax benefits:
Years Ended December 31,
202420232022
Balance at beginning of period$585 $520 $634 
Additions to current year tax positions108 45 12 
Additions to prior years' tax positions28 72 14 
Reductions to prior years' tax positions(109)(15)(98)
Reductions in tax positions due to lapse of statutory limitations(7)(19)(20)
Settlements(8)(18)(10)
Other(11)— (12)
Balance at end of period$586 $585 $520 

At December 31, 2024 and 2023, there were $415 million and $386 million of unrecognized tax benefits that if recognized would favorably affect our effective tax rate in the future. In the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022, income tax-related interest and penalties were insignificant. At December 31, 2024 and 2023, liabilities for income tax-related interest and penalties were insignificant.

At December 31, 2024, it is not possible to reasonably estimate the expected change to the total amount of unrecognized tax benefits in the next twelve months.
Other Matters Income tax returns are filed in multiple jurisdictions and are subject to examination by taxing authorities throughout the world. We have open tax years from 2011 to 2024 with various significant tax jurisdictions. Tax authorities may have the ability to review and adjust net operating loss or tax credit carryforwards that were generated prior to these periods if utilized in an open tax year. These open years contain matters that could be subject to differing interpretations of applicable tax laws and regulations as they relate to the amount, character, timing or inclusion of revenue and expenses or the sustainability of income tax credits for a given audit cycle.