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Summary of Significant Accounting Policies | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2016
Accounting Policies [Abstract] |
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies | Summary of Significant Accounting Policies Basis of Presentation and Principles of Consolidation The consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with U.S. GAAP. The financial statements include the accounts of Nasdaq, its wholly-owned subsidiaries and other entities in which Nasdaq has a controlling financial interest. When we do not have a controlling interest in an entity but exercise significant influence over the entity’s operating and financial policies, such investment is accounted for under the equity method of accounting. We recognize our share of earnings or losses of an equity method investee based on our ownership percentage. See “Equity Method Investments,” of Note 6, “Investments,” for further discussion of our equity method investments. The accompanying consolidated financial statements reflect all adjustments which are, in the opinion of management, necessary for a fair statement of the results. These adjustments are of a normal recurring nature. All significant intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation. Certain prior year amounts have been reclassified to conform to the current year presentation. Subsequent Events We have evaluated subsequent events through the issuance date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. See Note 20, “Subsequent Events,” for further discussion. Use of Estimates The preparation of consolidated financial statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts and the disclosure of contingent amounts in the consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes. Actual results could differ from those estimates. Foreign Currency Foreign denominated assets and liabilities are remeasured into the functional currency at exchange rates in effect at the balance sheet date and recorded through the income statement. Gains or losses resulting from foreign currency transactions are remeasured using the rates on the dates on which those elements are recognized during the period, and are included in general, administrative and other expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income. Translation gains or losses resulting from translating our subsidiaries’ financial statements from the local functional currency to the reporting currency, net of tax, are included in accumulated other comprehensive loss within stockholders’ equity in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Assets and liabilities are translated at the balance sheet date while revenues and expenses are translated at the date the transaction occurs or at an applicable average rate. Deferred taxes are not provided on cumulative translation adjustments where we expect earnings of a foreign subsidiary to be indefinitely reinvested. The income tax effect of currency translation adjustments related to foreign subsidiaries that are not considered indefinitely reinvested is recorded as a component of deferred taxes with an offset to accumulated other comprehensive loss within stockholders’ equity in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Cash and Cash Equivalents Cash and cash equivalents include cash in banks and all non-restricted highly liquid investments with original maturities of 90 days or less at the time of purchase. Such equivalent investments included in cash and cash equivalents in the Consolidated Balance Sheets were $251 million as of December 31, 2016 and $157 million as of December 31, 2015. Cash equivalents are carried at cost plus accrued interest, which approximates fair value due to the short maturities of these investments. Restricted Cash Current restricted cash, which was $15 million as of December 31, 2016 and $56 million as of December 31, 2015, is restricted from withdrawal due to a contractual requirement or not available for general use and is classified as restricted cash in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. As of December 31, 2016, current restricted cash primarily includes restricted cash held for our trading and clearing businesses. As of December 31, 2015, current restricted cash primarily included restricted cash related to customer funds held in connection with privately negotiated securities transactions. Financial Investments Financial investments, at fair value are primarily comprised of trading securities, mainly highly rated European government debt securities. Trading securities are bought principally to meet regulatory capital requirements for Nasdaq Clearing’s operations and are generally sold in the near term. Changes in fair value of trading securities are included in dividend and investment income. Financial investments that are classified as available-for-sale investment securities are carried at fair value with unrealized gains and losses, net of tax, reported in accumulated other comprehensive loss within stockholders’ equity in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Realized gains and losses on these securities are included in earnings upon disposition of the securities using the specific identification method. In addition, realized losses are recognized when management determines that a decline in value is other than temporary, which requires judgment regarding the amount and timing of recovery. For financial investments that are classified as available-for-sale securities, we also consider the extent to which cost exceeds fair value, the duration of that difference, management’s judgment about the issuer’s current and prospective financial condition, as well as our intent and ability to hold the security until recovery of the unrealized losses. Fair value of both trading and available-for-sale investment securities is generally obtained from third party pricing sources. When available, quoted market prices are used to determine fair value. If quoted market prices are not available, fair values are estimated using pricing models with observable market inputs. The inputs to the valuation models vary by the type of security being priced but are typically benchmark yields, reported trades, broker-dealer quotes, and prices of similar assets. Pricing models generally do not entail material subjectivity because the methodologies employed use inputs observed from active markets. See “Fair Value Measurements,” below for further discussion of fair value measures. Receivables, net Our receivables are concentrated with our member firms, market data distributors, listed companies, corporate solutions and market technology customers. Receivables are shown net of a reserve for uncollectible accounts. The reserve for bad debts is maintained at a level that management believes to be sufficient to absorb estimated losses in the accounts receivable portfolio. The reserve is increased by the provision for bad debts which is charged against operating results and decreased by the amount of charge-offs, net of recoveries. The provision for bad debts is included in general, administrative and other expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income. The amount charged against operating results is based on several factors including, but not limited to, a continuous assessment of the collectability of each account, the length of time a receivable is past due and our historical experience with the particular customer. In circumstances where a specific customer’s inability to meet its financial obligations is known (i.e., bankruptcy filings), we record a specific provision for bad debts against amounts due to reduce the receivable to the amount we reasonably believe will be collected. Due to changing economic, business and market conditions, we review the reserve for bad debts monthly and make changes to the reserve through the provision for bad debts as appropriate. If circumstances change (i.e., higher than expected defaults or an unexpected material adverse change in a major customer’s ability to pay), our estimates of recoverability could be reduced by a material amount. The total reserve netted against receivables in the Consolidated Balance Sheets was $13 million as of December 31, 2016, $14 million as of 2015 and $16 million as of December 31, 2014. The changes in the balance between periods was immaterial. Default Funds and Margin Deposits Nasdaq Clearing members’ cash contributions are included in default funds and margin deposits in the Consolidated Balance Sheets as both a current asset and a current liability. These balances may fluctuate over time due to changes in the amount of deposits required and whether members choose to provide cash or non-cash contributions. Non-cash contributions include highly rated government debt securities that must meet specific criteria approved by Nasdaq Clearing. Non-cash contributions are pledged assets that are not recorded in the Consolidated Balance Sheets as Nasdaq Clearing does not take legal ownership of these assets and the risks and rewards remain with the clearing members. Derivative Financial Instruments and Hedging Activities Non-Designated Derivatives We use derivatives as economic hedges that are not designed as accounting hedges or do not qualify for hedge accounting treatment. For such derivative financial instruments, changes in fair value are reported in current period earnings. We use foreign exchange forward contracts to manage foreign currency exposure of intercompany loans. These contracts are not designated as hedges for financial reporting purposes. The change in fair value of these contracts is recognized in general, administrative and other expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income and offsets the foreign currency impact recognized on the intercompany loans. As of December 31, 2016 and 2015, the fair value amounts of our derivative instruments were immaterial. Net Investment Hedges Net assets of our foreign subsidiaries are exposed to volatility in foreign currency exchange rates. We may utilize net investment hedges to offset the translation adjustment arising from re-measuring our investment in foreign subsidiaries. Our 2021 and 2023 Notes have been designated as a hedge of our net investment in certain foreign subsidiaries to mitigate the foreign exchange risk associated with certain investments in these subsidiaries. Any increase or decrease related to the remeasurement of the 2021 and 2023 Notes into U.S. dollars is recorded within accumulated other comprehensive loss in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. See “3.875% Senior Unsecured Notes,” and “1.75% Senior Unsecured Notes,” of Note 9, “Debt Obligations,” for further discussion. Property and Equipment, net Property and equipment, including leasehold improvements, are carried at cost less accumulated depreciation and amortization. Depreciation and amortization are recognized using the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the related assets, which range from 10 to 40 years for buildings and improvements, 2 to 5 years for data processing equipment, and 5 to 10 years for furniture and equipment. We develop systems solutions for both internal and external use. Certain costs incurred in connection with developing or obtaining internal use software are capitalized. In addition, certain costs of computer software to be sold, leased, or otherwise marketed as a separate product or as part of a product or process are capitalized beginning when a product’s technological feasibility has been established and ending when a product is available for general release. Technological feasibility is established upon completion of a detailed program design or, in its absence, completion. Prior to reaching technological feasibility, all costs are charged to expense. Unamortized capitalized costs are included in data processing equipment and software, within property and equipment, net in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Capitalized software costs are amortized on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful lives of the software, generally 3 to 5 years. Amortization of these costs is included in depreciation and amortization expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income. Leasehold improvements are amortized using the straight-line method over the shorter of their estimated useful lives or the remaining term of the related lease. See Note 7, “Property and Equipment, net,” for further discussion. Goodwill and Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets Goodwill represents the excess of purchase price over the value assigned to the net assets, including identifiable intangible assets, of a business acquired. Goodwill is assessed for impairment annually in the fourth quarter of our fiscal year using carrying amounts as of October 1, or more frequently if conditions exist that indicate that the asset may be impaired, such as changes in the business climate, poor indicators of operating performance or the sale or disposition of a significant portion of a reporting unit. When assessing goodwill for impairment, first, qualitative factors are assessed to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. If the results of the qualitative assessment are not conclusive, a quantitative goodwill test is performed. The quantitative goodwill test consists of two steps:
• | The first step compares the fair value of each reporting unit with its carrying amount, including goodwill. If the reporting unit’s fair value exceeds its carrying amount, goodwill is not impaired.
• | If the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, the second step of the goodwill test is performed to measure the amount of impairment, if any. An impairment is equal to the excess of the carrying amount of goodwill over its fair value.
We also evaluate indefinite-lived intangible assets for impairment annually in the fourth quarter of our fiscal year using carrying amounts as of October 1, or more frequently whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the fair value of the asset may be less than its carrying amount. Such evaluation includes determining the fair value of the asset and comparing the fair value of the asset with its carrying amount. If the fair value of the indefinite-lived intangible asset is less than its carrying amount, an impairment charge is recognized in an amount equal to the difference. For indefinite-lived intangible assets impairment testing, we also have the option to first perform a qualitative assessment to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of an indefinite-lived intangible asset is less than the carrying amount. If, after assessing the totality of events or circumstances, we determine that it is more likely than not that the fair value of an indefinite-lived intangible asset is less than its carrying amount, then we must perform additional testing of the asset. Otherwise, we conclude that no impairment is indicated and further testing is not performed. There was no impairment of goodwill for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014. As discussed in “Intangible Asset Impairment Charges,” of Note 5, “Goodwill and Acquired Intangible Assets,” we recorded pre-tax, non-cash indefinite-lived intangible asset impairment charges of $578 million in 2016 and $119 million in 2015. There was no other impairment of indefinite-lived intangible assets for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014. Disruptions to our business and events, such as economic weakness or unexpected significant declines in the operating results of any of our reporting units or businesses, may result in goodwill or indefinite-lived intangible asset impairment charges in the future. Valuation of Other Long-Lived Assets We review our other long-lived assets, such as finite-lived intangible assets and property and equipment, for potential impairment when there is evidence that events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of an asset may not be recoverable. The carrying amount of an asset is not recoverable if it exceeds the sum of the undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the asset. Any required impairment loss is measured as the amount by which the carrying amount of the asset exceeds its fair value and is recorded as a reduction in the carrying amount of the related asset and a charge to operating results. See “Intangible Asset Impairment Charges,” of Note 5, “Goodwill and Acquired Intangible Assets,” for further discussion of impairment charges recorded on our finite-lived intangible assets. Equity Method Investments In general, the equity method of accounting is used when we own 20% to 50% of the outstanding voting stock of a company and when we are able to exercise significant influence over the operating and financial policies of a company. We have certain investments in which we have determined that we have significant influence and as such account for the investments under the equity method of accounting. We record our pro-rata share of earnings or losses each period and record any dividends as a reduction in the investment balance. We evaluate our equity method investments for other-than-temporary declines in value by considering a variety of factors such as the earnings capacity of the investment and the fair value of the investment compared to its carrying amount. In addition, for investments where the market value is readily determinable, we consider the underlying stock price. If the estimated fair value of the investment is less than the carrying amount and management considers the decline in value to be other than temporary, the excess of the carrying amount over the estimated fair value is recognized in the financial statements as an impairment. See “Equity Method Investments,” of Note 6, “Investments,” for further discussion of an other-than-temporary charge recorded on an equity method investment. Cost Method Investments In general, the cost method of accounting is used when we own less than 20% of the outstanding voting stock of a company which does not have a readily determinable fair value and when we are not able to exercise significant influence over the operating and financial policies of a company. Under the cost method of accounting, investments are carried at cost and are adjusted only for other-than-temporary declines in fair value, certain distributions, and additional investments. We evaluate our cost method investments for other-than-temporary declines in value by considering a variety of factors such as the earnings capacity of the investment. Revenue Recognition and Transaction-Based Expenses Market Services Revenues Market services revenues include equity derivative trading and clearing revenues, cash equity trading revenues, FICC revenues, and trade management services revenues. Equity Derivative Trading and Clearing and Cash Equity Trading Revenues Equity Derivative Trading and Clearing Revenues In our equity derivative markets, we earn trading and clearing revenues which are variable. In the U.S., trading revenues are based on traded volumes, and recognized when executed. The principal types of equity derivative contracts traded are equity options, ETF options, index options and foreign currency options. In the U.S., we record execution revenues from transactions on a gross basis as revenues and record related expenses as transaction-based expenses, as we have certain risk associated with trade execution. See “Equity Derivative Trading and Clearing and Cash Equity Trading Transaction-Based Expenses” below for further discussion. In Europe, equity derivative trading and clearing revenues are based on the volume and value of traded and cleared contracts, and recognized when executed or when contracts are cleared. The principal types of equity derivative contracts traded and cleared are stock options and futures and index options and futures. Cash Equity Trading Revenues U.S. cash equity trading revenues are variable, based on individual customer share volumes, and recognized as transactions occur. We charge transaction fees for executing cash equity trades in Nasdaq-listed and other listed securities on our U.S. cash equity exchanges, as well as on orders that are routed to other market venues for execution. Similar to U.S. equity derivative trading and clearing, we record cash equity trading revenues from transactions on a gross basis as revenues and record related expenses as transaction-based expenses, as we have certain risk associated with trade execution. For further discussion see “Equity Derivative Trading and Clearing and Cash Equity Trading Transaction-Based Expenses” below. In our European cash equity markets, we charge transaction fees for executing trades on the exchanges that comprise Nasdaq Nordic and Nasdaq Baltic. These transaction fees are charged per executed order and as per value traded. Equity Derivative Trading and Clearing and Cash Equity Trading Transaction-Based Expenses For U.S. equity derivative trading, we credit a portion of the per share execution charge to the market participant that provides the liquidity. For U.S. cash equity trading, for Nasdaq and Nasdaq PSX, we credit a portion of the per share execution charge to the market participant that provides the liquidity and for Nasdaq BX, we credit a portion of the per share execution charge to the market participant that takes the liquidity. We record these credits as transaction rebates that are included in transaction-based expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income. These transaction rebates are paid on a monthly basis and the amounts due are included in accounts payable and accrued expenses in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. In the U.S., we pay Section 31 fees to the SEC for supervision and regulation of securities markets. We pass these costs along to our customers through our equity derivative trading and clearing fees and our cash equity trading fees. We collect the fees as a pass-through charge from organizations executing eligible trades on our options exchanges and our cash equity platforms and we recognize these amounts in transaction-based expenses when incurred. Section 31 fees received are included in cash and cash equivalents in the Consolidated Balance Sheets at the time of receipt and, as required by law, the amount due to the SEC is remitted semiannually and recorded as Section 31 fees payable to the SEC in the Consolidated Balance Sheets until paid. Since the amount recorded as revenues is equal to the amount recorded as transaction-based expenses, there is no impact on our revenues less transaction-based expenses. As we hold the cash received until payment to the SEC, we earn interest income on the related cash balances. Under our Limitation of Liability Rule and procedures, we may, subject to certain caps, provide compensation for losses directly resulting from the systems’ actual failure to correctly process an order, quote, message or other data into our platform. We do not record a liability for any potential claims that may be submitted under the Limitation of Liability Rule unless they meet the provisions required in accordance with U.S. GAAP. As such, losses arising as a result of the rule are accrued and charged to expense only if the loss is probable and estimable. The exchanges that comprise Nasdaq Nordic and Nasdaq Baltic do not have any revenue sharing agreements or transaction-based expenses, such as transaction rebates and brokerage, clearance and exchange fees. FICC Revenues Fixed income trading revenues are primarily earned from trading of U.S. Treasury securities and other fixed income products. Customer contracts may be on a fixed or variable rate basis. Revenues from customer contracts with a fixed rate basis are recognized ratably over the contract period. Revenues from customer contracts with a variable rate basis are based upon individual customer share volume and are recognized as revenues as the transaction occurs. Commodities trading and clearing revenues are primarily earned from trading and clearing of energy, emission allowance, freight, seafood and other commodity products. Trading and clearing revenues are based on the volume and value of traded and cleared contracts, and recognized when executed or when contracts are cleared. In addition, Nasdaq Commodities members are billed an annual fee which is recognized ratably over the following 12-month period. We also generate clearing revenues for OTC traded derivatives, interest rate swaps, and resale and repurchase agreements. These clearing revenues are based on the value and length of the contract and are recognized when cleared. In connection with our collateral management process in our Nasdaq Clearing operations, we recognize interest income on cash contributions that we manage when earned. Trade Management Services Revenues Access Services We generate revenues by providing market participants with several alternatives for connecting to and accessing our markets for a fee. The type of connectivity is determined by the level of functionality a customer needs. As a result, access services revenues vary depending on the type of connection provided to customers. We provide co-location services to market participants, whereby firms may lease cabinet space and power to house their own equipment and servers within our data centers. These participants are charged monthly fees for cabinet space, connectivity and support. Additionally, we offer a number of wireless connectivity routes between select data centers using millimeter wave and microwave technology. We also earn revenues from annual and monthly exchange membership and registration fees. Revenues for providing access to our markets, co-location services and monthly exchange membership and registration fees are recognized on a monthly basis as the service is provided. Revenues from annual fees for exchange membership and registration fees are recognized ratably over the following 12-month period. Broker Services Our broker services operations offer technology and customized securities administration solutions to financial participants in the Nordic market. The primary services offered are flexible back-office systems, which allow customers to entirely or partly outsource their company’s back-office functions. Revenues from broker services are based on a fixed basic fee for administration or licensing, maintenance and operations, and a variable portion that depends on the number of transactions completed. Broker services revenues are recognized on a continuous basis as services are rendered. Corporate Services Revenues Corporate services revenues include corporate solutions revenues and listing services revenues. Corporate Solutions Revenues Corporate solutions revenues primarily include subscription and transaction-based income from our investor relations, public relations, governance and multimedia solutions products. Subscription-based revenues earned are recognized ratably over the contract period, generally one to two years in length. As part of the subscription agreements, customers can also be charged usage fees based upon actual usage of the services provided. Revenues from usage fees and other services are recognized when earned. Revenues from transaction-based services, such as webcasting and wire distribution, are recorded as the services are provided and delivered. Listing Services Revenues Listing services revenues primarily include annual renewal fees, initial listing fees and listing of additional shares fees. Annual Renewal Fees In the U.S., annual renewal fees are charged based on the number of outstanding shares of companies listed in the U.S. at the end of the prior year and are recognized ratably over the following 12-month period. European annual renewal fees, which are received from companies listed on our Nasdaq Nordic and Nasdaq Baltic exchanges and Nasdaq First North, are directly related to the listed companies’ market capitalization on a trailing 12-month basis. Initial Listing Fees Initial listing fees are generally based on the number of shares that a company initially lists and are recognized on a straight-line basis over estimated service periods of six years, based on our historical listing experience and projected future listing duration. Listing of Additional Shares Fees Listing of additional shares fees are paid by listed companies in connection with corporate actions involving the issuance of new shares to be listed, such as stock splits and sales of additional securities. These fees are recognized on a straight-line basis over estimated service periods of four years, based on our historical listing experience and projected future listing duration. Listing of additional share fees are expected to decline and will be phased out by January 2018 as a result of the implementation of our new fee program for our U.S. markets. See “All-Inclusive Annual Listing Fee Program” below for further discussion. All-Inclusive Annual Listing Fee Program Nasdaq announced an all-inclusive annual listing fee program for companies listed in the U.S. which became effective in 2015. Under this program, listed companies pay an annual fee which includes all listing-related activities, including listing of additional shares. All listed companies will be subject to the all-inclusive program beginning in January 2018, but can elect to opt-in to this program prior to January 2018. These revenues will be recognized ratably over the following 12-month period. Information Services Revenues Information services revenues include data products revenues and index licensing and services revenues. Data Products Revenues Data products revenues are earned from U.S. and European proprietary data products and index data products. In the U.S., we also earn revenues from U.S. tape plans. We collect, process and create information from our exchanges and earn revenues as a distributor of our own data, as well as select, third-party content. We provide varying levels of quote and trade information to market participants and to data distributors, who in turn sell subscriptions for this information. We earn revenues primarily based on the number of data subscribers and distributors of our data. Data products revenues are subscription-based and are recognized on a monthly basis net of amounts due under revenue sharing arrangements with market participants. We also generate revenues from our Nasdaq indexes that consist of Global Index Data Services, which delivers real-time index values throughout the trading day, and Global Index Watch/Global Index File Delivery Service, which delivers weightings and components data, corporate actions and a breadth of additional data. We earn revenues primarily based on the number of data subscribers and distributors of our data. These revenues, which are subscription based, are recognized on a monthly basis. Revenues from U.S. tape plans include eligible UTP Plan revenues that are shared among UTP Plan participants and are presented on a net basis. The Nasdaq Stock Market acts as the processor and administrator for the UTP Plan. The UTP Plan administrator sells quotation and last sale information for all transactions in Nasdaq-listed securities, whether traded on The Nasdaq Stock Market or other exchanges, to market participants and to data distributors, who then provide the information to subscribers. After deducting costs, as permitted under the revenue sharing provision of the UTP Plan, the UTP Plan administrator distributes the tape revenues to the respective UTP Plan participants, including The Nasdaq Stock Market, Nasdaq BX and Nasdaq PSX, based on a formula required by Regulation NMS that takes into account both trading and quoting activity. In addition, much like Nasdaq-listed securities, all quotes and trades in NYSE- and NYSE MKT-listed securities are reported and disseminated in real-time, and as such, we share in the tape revenues for information on NYSE- and NYSE MKT-listed securities. Revenues from net U.S. tape plans are recognized on a monthly basis. Data Products Revenue Sharing The most significant component of data products revenues recorded on a net basis is the UTP Plan revenue sharing in the U.S. All indicators of gross versus net reporting under U.S. GAAP have been considered in analyzing the appropriate presentation of UTP Plan revenue sharing. However, the following are the primary indicators of net reporting:
• | Primary Obligor: We are the administrator for the UTP Plan, in addition to being a participant in the UTP Plan. In our unique role as administrator, we facilitate the collection and dissemination of revenues on behalf of the UTP Plan participants. As a participant, we share in the net distribution of revenues according to the plan on the same terms as all other plan participants.
• | Risk of Loss/Credit Risk: Risk of loss on the revenue is shared equally among plan participants according to the UTP Plan.
• | Price Latitude: The operating committee of the UTP Plan, which is comprised of representatives from each of the participants, including us solely in our capacity as a UTP Plan participant, is responsible for setting the level of fees to be paid by distributors and subscribers and taking action in accordance with the provisions of the UTP Plan, subject to SEC approval.
The exchanges that comprise Nasdaq Nordic and Nasdaq Baltic do not have any data products revenue sharing agreements. Index Licensing and Services Revenues We develop and license Nasdaq branded indexes, associated derivatives and financial products as part of our Global Index Family. We also provide custom calculation services for third-party clients. Revenues primarily include license fees from these branded indexes, associated derivatives and financial products in the U.S. and abroad. We primarily have two types of license agreements: transaction-based licenses and asset-based licenses. Transaction-based licenses are generally renewable long-term agreements. Customers are charged based on transaction volume or a minimum contract amount, or both. If a customer is charged based on transaction volume, we recognize revenue when the transaction occurs. If a customer is charged based on a minimum contract amount, we recognize revenue on a pro-rata basis over the licensing term. Asset-based licenses are also generally long-term agreements. Customers are charged based on a percentage of assets under management for licensed products, per the agreement, on a monthly or quarterly basis. These revenues are recognized over the term of the license agreement. Market Technology Revenues Market Technology provides technology solutions for trading, clearing, settlement, surveillance and information dissemination, as well as enterprise governance, risk management and compliance software solutions. Revenues primarily consist of software, license and support revenues, change request and advisory revenues, and software as a service revenues. For most solutions, we enter into multiple-element sales arrangements to develop technology solutions, license the right to use software, and provide post-contract support and other services to our customers. In order to recognize revenues associated with each individual element of a multiple-element sales arrangement separately, we are required to establish the existence of VSOE of fair value for each element. When VSOE for individual elements of an arrangement cannot be established, revenue is generally deferred and recognized over either the final element of the arrangement or the entire term of the arrangement for which the services will be delivered. We enter into agreements to modify the system solutions sold by Nasdaq after delivery has occurred. These revenues are recognized when earned. In addition, we enter into revolving subscription agreements which allow customers to connect to our servers to access certain services. These revenues are recognized ratably over the subscription term. Earnings Per Share We present both basic and diluted earnings per share. Basic earnings per share is computed by dividing net income attributable to Nasdaq by the weighted-average number of common shares outstanding for the period. Diluted earnings per share is computed by dividing net income attributable to Nasdaq by the weighted-average number of common shares and common share equivalents outstanding during the period and reflects the assumed conversion of all dilutive securities, which primarily consist of employee stock options, restricted stock, and PSUs. Common share equivalents are excluded from the computation in periods for which they have an anti-dilutive effect. Stock options for which the exercise price exceeds the average market price over the period are anti-dilutive and, accordingly, are excluded from the calculation. See Note 14, “Earnings Per Share,” for further discussion. Pension and Post-Retirement Benefits Pension and other post-retirement benefit plan information for financial reporting purposes is developed using actuarial valuations. We assess our pension and other post-retirement benefit plan assumptions on a regular basis. In evaluating these assumptions, we consider many factors, including evaluation of the discount rate, expected rate of return on plan assets, mortality rate, healthcare cost trend rate, retirement age assumption, our historical assumptions compared with actual results and analysis of current market conditions and asset allocations. See Note 11, “Retirement Plans,” for further discussion. Discount rates used for pension and other post-retirement benefit plan calculations are evaluated annually and modified to reflect the prevailing market rates at the measurement date of a high-quality fixed-income debt instrument portfolio that would provide the future cash flows needed to pay the benefits included in the benefit obligations as they come due. Actuarial assumptions are based upon management’s best estimates and judgment. The expected rate of return on plan assets for our U.S. pension plans represents our long-term assessment of return expectations which may change based on significant shifts in economic and financial market conditions. The long-term rate of return on plan assets is derived from return assumptions based on targeted allocations for various asset classes. While we consider the pension plans’ recent performance and other economic growth and inflation factors, which are supported by long-term historical data, the return expectations for the targeted asset categories represent a long-term prospective return. Share-Based Compensation Nasdaq uses the fair value method of accounting for share-based awards. Share-based awards, or equity awards, include stock options, restricted stock, and PSUs. The fair value of stock options are estimated using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The fair value of restricted stock awards and PSUs, other than PSUs granted with market conditions, is determined based on the grant date closing stock price less the present value of future cash dividends. We estimate the fair value of PSUs granted with market conditions using a Monte Carlo simulation model at the date of grant. We generally recognize compensation expense for equity awards on a straight-line basis over the requisite service period of the award, taking into account an estimated forfeiture rate. We present excess tax benefits related to share-based payments, if any, as financing activities in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows. Nasdaq also has an ESPP that allows eligible employees to purchase a limited number of shares of our common stock at six-month intervals, called offering periods, at 85.0% of the lower of the fair market value on the first or the last day of each offering period. The 15.0% discount given to our employees is included in compensation and benefits expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income. See Note 12, “Share-Based Compensation,” for further discussion of our share-based compensation plans. Leases We expense rent from non-cancellable operating leases, net of sublease income, on a straight line basis, based on future minimum lease payments. The net costs are included in occupancy expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income. See Note 17, “Leases,” for further discussion. Fair Value Measurements Fair value is defined as the price that would be received from selling an asset or paid to transfer a liability, or the exit price, in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. When determining the fair value measurements for assets and liabilities required or permitted to be either recorded or disclosed at fair value, we consider the principal or most advantageous market in which we would transact, and we also consider assumptions that market participants would use when pricing the asset or liability. Fair value measurement establishes a hierarchy of valuation techniques based on whether the inputs to those valuation techniques are observable or unobservable. Observable inputs reflect market data obtained from independent sources, while unobservable inputs reflect Nasdaq’s market assumptions. These two types of inputs create the following fair value hierarchy:
• | Level 1—Quoted prices for identical instruments in active markets.
• | Level 2—Quoted prices for similar instruments in active markets; quoted prices for identical or similar instruments in markets that are not active; and model-derived valuations whose inputs are observable or whose significant value drivers are observable.
• | Level 3—Instruments whose significant value drivers are unobservable.
This hierarchy requires the use of observable market data when available. See Note 15, “Fair Value of Financial Instruments,” for further discussion. Income Taxes We use the asset and liability method to determine income taxes on all transactions recorded in the consolidated financial statements. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined based on differences between the financial statement carrying amounts and the tax basis of existing assets and liabilities (i.e., temporary differences) and are measured at the enacted rates that will be in effect when these differences are realized. If necessary, a valuation allowance is established to reduce deferred tax assets to the amount that is more likely than not to be realized. In order to recognize and measure our unrecognized tax benefits, management determines whether a tax position is more likely than not to be sustained upon examination, including resolution of any related appeals or litigation processes, based on the technical merits of the position. Once it is determined that a position meets the recognition thresholds, the position is measured to determine the amount of benefit to be recognized in the consolidated financial statements. Interest and/or penalties related to income tax matters are recognized in income tax expense. See Note 10, “Income Taxes,” for further discussion. Recently Adopted Accounting Pronouncements
Accounting Standard | Description | Effective Date | Effect on the Financial Statements or Other Significant Matters
Statement of Cash Flows In November 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-18, “Restricted Cash.” | This ASU requires that the statement of cash flows explain the change during the period in the total of cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents. Therefore, restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents would be included when reconciling the beginning-of-period and end-of-period total amounts of cash flow shown on the statement of cash flows. As a result, transfers between cash and cash equivalents and restricted cash and cash equivalents will no longer be presented in the statement of cash flows. | January 1, 2018 with early adoption permitted. | In the fourth quarter of 2016, we early adopted ASU 2016-18 and reclassified changes in restricted cash from cash flow provided by operating activities to the total change in beginning-of-period and end-of-period total amounts shown on the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows for the years ended December 31, 2015 and 2014. This new standard is a change in cash flow statement presentation only.
Statement of Cash Flows In August 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-15, “Classification of Certain Cash Receipts and Cash Payments.” | This ASU addresses how certain cash receipts and cash payments are presented and classified in the statement of cash flows with the objective of reducing existing diversity in practice with respect to these items. These items include debt prepayments or debt extinguishment costs, payments of contingent consideration after a business combination, and distributions from equity method investees, among others. | January 1, 2018, with early adoption permitted. | In the fourth quarter of 2016, we early adopted ASU 2016-15 and reclassified payments for contingent considerations made in 2015 and 2014 from cash flows from investing activities to cash flows from financing activities on the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows for the years ended December 31, 2015 and 2014. This new standard is a change in cash flow statement presentation only.
Income Taxes In November 2015, the FASB issued ASU 2015-17, “Balance Sheet Classification of Deferred Taxes.” | This ASU eliminates the current requirement to present deferred tax liabilities and assets as current and non-current in a classified balance sheet. Instead, Nasdaq is required to classify all deferred tax liabilities and assets as non-current. | In the first quarter of 2016, we elected to early adopt this guidance retrospectively for all periods presented in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. | The adoption of this guidance resulted in the reclassification of current deferred tax assets of $24 million to non-current deferred tax assets and current deferred tax liabilities of $24 million to non-current deferred tax liabilities for the year ended December 31, 2015. This new standard is a change in balance sheet presentation only.
Business Combinations In September 2015, the FASB issued ASU 2015-16, “Simplifying the Accounting for Measurement-Period Adjustments.” | This ASU eliminates the requirement that an acquirer in a business combination account for measurement-period adjustments retrospectively. This guidance requires the acquirer to recognize adjustments to provisional amounts identified during the measurement period in the reporting period in which the adjustment amounts are determined. In addition, the amendments in this guidance require an entity to present separately on the face of the income statement or disclose in the notes the portion of the amount recorded in current-period earnings by line item that would have been recorded in previous reporting periods if the adjustment to the provisional amounts had been recognized as of the acquisition date. | We adopted this new standard on January 1, 2016. | None.
Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements
Accounting Standard | Description | Effective Date | Effect on the Financial Statements or Other Significant Matters
Financial Instruments - Credit Losses In June 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-13, “Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Instruments.” | This ASU changes the impairment model for certain financial instruments. The new model is a forward looking expected loss model and will apply to financial assets subject to credit losses and measured at amortized cost and certain off-balance sheet credit exposures. This includes loans, held-to-maturity debt securities, loan commitments, financial guarantees and net investments in leases, as well as trade receivables. For available-for-sale debt securities with unrealized losses, credit losses will be measured in a manner similar to today, except that the losses will be recognized as allowances rather than reductions in the amortized cost of the securities. | January 1, 2020, with early adoption as of January 1, 2019 permitted. | We are currently assessing the impact that this standard will have on our consolidated financial statements.
Compensation - Stock Compensation In March 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-09, “Improvements to Employee Share-Based Payment Accounting.” | This ASU involves several aspects of the accounting for share-based payment transactions, including the income tax consequences, classification of awards as either equity or liabilities, and classification on the statement of cash flows. This new guidance will require all income tax effects of awards to be recognized as income tax expense or benefit in the income statement when the awards vest or are settled, as opposed to additional paid-in-capital where it is currently recorded. This guidance will impact the calculation of our total diluted share count for the earnings per share calculation, as calculated under the treasury stock method. It also will allow an employer to repurchase more of an employee’s shares than it can today for tax withholding purposes without triggering liability accounting. All tax-related cash flows resulting from share-based payments are to be reported as operating activities on the statement of cash flows. In regards to forfeitures, Nasdaq can make a policy election to either estimate the number of awards that are expected to vest or account for forfeitures as they occur. | January 1, 2017, with early adoption permitted. | The impact of ASU 2016-09 could be material to our results of operations in future periods depending upon factors such as future earnings and stock price.
Leases In February 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-02, “Leases.” | Under this ASU, at the commencement date, lessees will be required to recognize a lease liability, which is a lessee’s obligation to make lease payments arising from a lease, measured on a discounted basis; and a right-of-use asset, which is an asset that represents the lessee’s right to use, or control the use of, a specified asset for the lease term. This guidance is not applicable for leases with a term of 12 months or less. Lessor accounting is largely unchanged. | January 1, 2019, with early adoption permitted. | We are currently assessing the impact that this standard will have on our consolidated financial statements.
Financial Instruments - Overall In January 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-01, “Recognition and Measurement of Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities.” | This ASU requires that most equity investments be measured at fair value, with subsequent changes in fair value recognized in net income. Under this new guidance, Nasdaq will no longer be able to recognize unrealized holding gains and losses on equity securities classified today as available-for-sale in accumulated other comprehensive income within stockholders’ equity. This new standard does not change the guidance for classifying and measuring investments in debt securities and loans. This new guidance also impacts financial liabilities accounted for under the fair value option and affects the presentation and disclosure requirements for financial assets and liabilities. | January 1, 2018. Early adoption is not permitted. | We do not anticipate a material impact on our consolidated financial statements at the time of adoption of this new standard.
Accounting Standard | Description | Effective Date | Effect on the Financial Statements or Other Significant Matters
Revenue From Contracts With Customers In May 2014, the FASB issued ASU 2014-09, “Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606),” which supersedes the revenue recognition guidance in Accounting Standards Codification, “Revenue Recognition.” | The new revenue recognition standard sets forth a five-step revenue recognition model to determine when and how revenue is recognized. The core principle of the guidance is that an entity should recognize revenue to depict the transfer of promised goods or services to customers in an amount that reflects the consideration it expects to receive in exchange for those goods or services. The standard also requires more detailed disclosures. The standard provides alternative methods of initial adoption. | January 1, 2018, with early adoption permitted. | We are currently assessing the materiality of the impact to our consolidated financial statements, and have not yet selected a transition approach. We have determined that our Market Technology business will be the most significantly impacted business primarily due to conforming with new guidance on performance obligations. We are still assessing the impact, if any, to our other businesses.

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