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UNITED STATES SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION
Washington, D.C. 20549
Form 10-Q
(Mark one)

☒ | QUARTERLY REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 or 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934

For the Quarterly Period Ended September 30, 2022
or

☐ | Transition Report Pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.

For the Transition Period from to .

Commission File Number | 1-15202

W. R. BERKLEY CORPORATION
(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

Delaware |  | 22-1867895
(State or other jurisdiction of incorporation or organization) |  | (I.R.S. Employer Identification No.)
475 Steamboat Road | Greenwich | Connecticut | 06830
(Address of principal executive offices) |  |  | (Zip Code)

(203) | 629-3000

(Registrant’s telephone number, including area code)

| None |
Former name, former address and former fiscal year, if changed since last report.

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Title | Trading Symbol | Name
Common Stock, par value $.20 per share | WRB | New York Stock Exchange
5.700% Subordinated Debentures due 2058 | WRB-PE | New York Stock Exchange
5.100% Subordinated Debentures due 2059 | WRB-PF | New York Stock Exchange
4.250% Subordinated Debentures due 2060 | WRB-PG | New York Stock Exchange
4.125% Subordinated Debentures due 2061 | WRB-PH | New York Stock Exchange

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No ☐
Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ No ☐
1

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

Large accelerated filer | ☒ |  | Accelerated filer | ☐
Non-accelerated filer | ☐ |  | Smaller reporting company | ☐
|  |  | Emerging growth company | ☐

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐
Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes ☐ No ☒
Number of shares of common stock, $.20 par value, outstanding as of October 31, 2022: 265,476,121

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part I — FINANCIAL INFORMATION
| Item 1. Financial Statements
| Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations
| Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosure About Market Risk
| Item 4. Controls and Procedures
PART II — OTHER INFORMATION
| Item 1. Legal Proceedings
| Item 1A. Risk Factors
| Item 2. Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds
| Item 6. Exhibits
SIGNATURES
EX-31.1
EX-31.2
EX-32.1
EX-101 INSTANCE DOCUMENT
EX-101 SCHEMA DOCUMENT
EX-101 CALCULATION LINKBASE DOCUMENT
EX-101 LABELS LINKBASE DOCUMENT
EX-101 PRESENTATION LINKBASE DOCUMENT
EX-101 DEFINITION LINKBASE DOCUMENT

3

Part I — FINANCIAL INFORMATION
Item 1. Financial Statements
W. R. BERKLEY CORPORATION AND SUBSIDIARIES CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEETS
(In thousands, except share data)

| September 30, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021
| (Unaudited) |  | (Audited)
Assets |  |  |
Investments: |  |  |
Fixed maturity securities (amortized cost of $18,467,661 and $16,471,304; allowance for expected credit losses of $34,716 and $22,625 at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively) | $ | 17,230,936 |  |  | $ | 16,602,673 |
Investment funds | 1,662,029 |  |  | 1,480,612 |
Real estate | 1,320,550 |  |  | 1,852,508 |
Equity securities | 1,173,589 |  |  | 941,243 |
Arbitrage trading account | 1,165,016 |  |  | 1,179,606 |
Loans receivable (net of allowance for expected credit losses of $1,992 and $1,718 at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively) | 112,800 |  |  | 115,172 |
Total investments | 22,664,920 |  |  | 22,171,814 |
Cash and cash equivalents | 1,130,750 |  |  | 1,568,843 |
Premiums and fees receivable (net of allowance for expected credit losses of $30,578 and $25,218 at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively) | 2,752,678 |  |  | 2,522,972 |
Due from reinsurers (net of allowance for expected credit losses of $7,999 and $7,713 at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively) | 3,160,843 |  |  | 2,923,026 |
Deferred policy acquisition costs | 766,923 |  |  | 676,145 |
Prepaid reinsurance premiums | 701,044 |  |  | 676,915 |
Property, furniture and equipment | 414,228 |  |  | 419,883 |
Goodwill | 169,652 |  |  | 169,652 |
Accrued investment income | 150,801 |  |  | 122,938 |
Current and deferred federal and foreign income taxes | 407,595 |  |  | 42,457 |
Other assets | 757,385 |  |  | 753,231 |
Total assets | $ | 33,076,819 |  |  | $ | 32,047,876 |
Liabilities and Equity |  |  |
Liabilities: |  |  |
Reserves for losses and loss expenses | $ | 16,540,123 |  |  | $ | 15,390,888 |
Unearned premiums | 5,374,985 |  |  | 4,847,160 |
Due to reinsurers | 579,262 |  |  | 514,980 |
Trading account securities sold but not yet purchased | 6 |  |  | 1,169 |
Trading account payable to brokers and clearing organizations | 820 |  |  | 53,636 |
Other liabilities | 1,369,169 |  |  | 1,305,245 |
Senior notes and other debt | 1,834,287 |  |  | 2,259,416 |
Subordinated debentures | 1,008,191 |  |  | 1,007,652 |
Total liabilities | 26,706,843 |  |  | 25,380,146 |
Equity: |  |  |
Preferred stock, par value $0.10 per share: |  |  |
Authorized 5,000,000 shares; issued and outstanding - none | — |  |  | — |
Common stock, par value $0.20 per share: |  |  |
Authorized 1,250,000,000 shares and 750,000,000 shares, respectively; issued and outstanding, net of treasury shares, 265,801,717 and 265,170,882 shares, respectively | 105,803 |  |  | 105,803 |
Additional paid-in capital | 984,803 |  |  | 981,104 |
Retained earnings | 9,805,237 |  |  | 9,015,135 |
Accumulated other comprehensive loss | (1,385,810) |  |  | (281,955) |
Treasury stock, at cost, 263,212,911 and 263,843,868 shares, respectively | (3,163,967) |  |  | (3,167,076) |
Total stockholders’ equity | 6,346,066 |  |  | 6,653,011 |
Noncontrolling interests | 23,910 |  |  | 14,719 |
Total equity | 6,369,976 |  |  | 6,667,730 |
Total liabilities and equity | $ | 33,076,819 |  |  | $ | 32,047,876 |

See accompanying notes to interim consolidated financial statements.
1

W. R. BERKLEY CORPORATION AND SUBSIDIARIES
CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF INCOME (UNAUDITED)
(In thousands, except per share data)

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
| 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
REVENUES: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Net premiums written | $ | 2,577,274 |  |  | $ | 2,325,138 |  |  | $ | 7,576,163 |  |  | $ | 6,587,357 |
Change in net unearned premiums | (135,313) |  |  | (244,120) |  |  | (527,958) |  |  | (684,759) |
Net premiums earned | 2,441,961 |  |  | 2,081,018 |  |  | 7,048,205 |  |  | 5,902,598 |
Net investment income | 202,816 |  |  | 179,851 |  |  | 547,902 |  |  | 506,615 |
Net investment (losses) gains: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Net realized and unrealized (losses) gains on investments | (66,282) |  |  | 17,187 |  |  | 139,664 |  |  | 89,407 |
Change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments | (1,128) |  |  | 2,314 |  |  | (12,365) |  |  | (11,003) |
Net investment (losses) gains | (67,410) |  |  | 19,501 |  |  | 127,299 |  |  | 78,404 |
Revenues from non-insurance businesses | 119,013 |  |  | 120,374 |  |  | 345,210 |  |  | 316,927 |
Insurance service fees | 27,940 |  |  | 21,467 |  |  | 82,284 |  |  | 69,531 |
Other income | 80 |  |  | 2,072 |  |  | 1,797 |  |  | 3,163 |
Total revenues | 2,724,400 |  |  | 2,424,283 |  |  | 8,152,697 |  |  | 6,877,238 |
OPERATING COSTS AND EXPENSES: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Losses and loss expenses | 1,564,578 |  |  | 1,298,392 |  |  | 4,339,646 |  |  | 3,623,630 |
Other operating costs and expenses | 725,537 |  |  | 643,045 |  |  | 2,139,256 |  |  | 1,907,020 |
Expenses from non-insurance businesses | 116,240 |  |  | 115,465 |  |  | 334,062 |  |  | 308,453 |
Interest expense | 31,780 |  |  | 35,100 |  |  | 98,473 |  |  | 109,846 |
Total operating costs and expenses | 2,438,135 |  |  | 2,092,002 |  |  | 6,911,437 |  |  | 5,948,949 |
Income before income taxes | 286,265 |  |  | 332,281 |  |  | 1,241,260 |  |  | 928,289 |
Income tax expense | (55,791) |  |  | (64,963) |  |  | (238,290) |  |  | (191,577) |
Net income before noncontrolling interests | 230,474 |  |  | 267,318 |  |  | 1,002,970 |  |  | 736,712 |
Noncontrolling interests | (1,595) |  |  | (6,021) |  |  | (4,131) |  |  | (8,652) |
Net income to common stockholders | $ | 228,879 |  |  | $ | 261,297 |  |  | $ | 998,839 |  |  | $ | 728,060 |
NET INCOME PER SHARE: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Basic | $ | 0.83 |  |  | $ | 0.94 |  |  | $ | 3.61 |  |  | $ | 2.62 |
Diluted | $ | 0.82 |  |  | $ | 0.93 |  |  | $ | 3.57 |  |  | $ | 2.59 |

See accompanying notes to interim consolidated financial statements.
2

W. R. BERKLEY CORPORATION AND SUBSIDIARIES
CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF COMPREHENSIVE (LOSS) INCOME (UNAUDITED)
(In thousands)

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
| 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Net income before noncontrolling interests | $ | 230,474 |  |  | $ | 267,318 |  |  | $ | 1,002,970 |  |  | $ | 736,712 |
Other comprehensive (loss) income: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Change in unrealized currency translation adjustments | (40,516) |  |  | (32,822) |  |  | (27,637) |  |  | (26,235) |
Change in unrealized investment losses, net of taxes | (315,664) |  |  | (35,596) |  |  | (1,076,217) |  |  | (102,454) |
Other comprehensive loss | (356,180) |  |  | (68,418) |  |  | (1,103,854) |  |  | (128,689) |
Comprehensive (loss) income | (125,706) |  |  | 198,900 |  |  | (100,884) |  |  | 608,023 |
Noncontrolling interests | (1,595) |  |  | (6,021) |  |  | (4,130) |  |  | (8,651) |
Comprehensive (loss) income to common stockholders | $ | (127,301) |  |  | $ | 192,879 |  |  | $ | (105,014) |  |  | $ | 599,372 |

See accompanying notes to interim consolidated financial statements.
3

W. R. BERKLEY CORPORATION AND SUBSIDIARIES
CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF STOCKHOLDERS’ EQUITY (UNAUDITED)
(In thousands, except per share data)

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
| 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
COMMON STOCK: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Beginning and end of period | $ | 105,803 |  |  | $ | 105,803 |  |  | $ | 105,803 |  |  | $ | 105,803 |
ADDITIONAL PAID-IN CAPITAL: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | 1,001,093 |  |  | $ | 999,898 |  |  | $ | 981,104 |  |  | $ | 977,215 |
Restricted stock units issued | (28,381) |  |  | (28,741) |  |  | (30,751) |  |  | (28,669) |
Restricted stock units expensed | 12,091 |  |  | 11,875 |  |  | 34,450 |  |  | 34,486 |
End of period | $ | 984,803 |  |  | $ | 983,032 |  |  | $ | 984,803 |  |  | $ | 983,032 |
RETAINED EARNINGS: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | 9,602,948 |  |  | $ | 8,682,088 |  |  | $ | 9,015,135 |  |  | $ | 8,348,381 |
Net income to common stockholders | 228,879 |  |  | 261,297 |  |  | 998,839 |  |  | 728,060 |
Dividends ($0.10, $0.09, $0.79 and $0.59 per share, respectively) | (26,590) |  |  | (23,051) |  |  | (208,737) |  |  | (156,107) |
End of period | $ | 9,805,237 |  |  | $ | 8,920,334 |  |  | $ | 9,805,237 |  |  | $ | 8,920,334 |
ACCUMULATED OTHER COMPREHENSIVE LOSS: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Unrealized investment (loss) gains: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | (669,654) |  |  | $ | 222,855 |  |  | $ | 90,900 |  |  | $ | 289,714 |
Change in unrealized losses on securities without an allowance for expected credit losses | (311,659) |  |  | (35,707) |  |  | (1,055,628) |  |  | (112,852) |
Change in unrealized (losses) gains on securities with an allowance for expected credit losses | (4,005) |  |  | 111 |  |  | (20,590) |  |  | 10,397 |
End of period | (985,318) |  |  | 187,259 |  |  | (985,318) |  |  | 187,259 |
Currency translation adjustments: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | (359,976) |  |  | (345,299) |  |  | (372,855) |  |  | (351,886) |
Net change in period | (40,516) |  |  | (32,822) |  |  | (27,637) |  |  | (26,235) |
End of period | (400,492) |  |  | (378,121) |  |  | (400,492) |  |  | (378,121) |
Total accumulated other comprehensive loss | $ | (1,385,810) |  |  | $ | (190,862) |  |  | $ | (1,385,810) |  |  | $ | (190,862) |
TREASURY STOCK: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | (3,165,729) |  |  | $ | (3,087,069) |  |  | $ | (3,167,076) |  |  | $ | (3,058,425) |
Stock exercised/vested | 8,332 |  |  | 9,946 |  |  | 9,679 |  |  | 10,985 |
Stock repurchased | (6,570) |  |  | (92,743) |  |  | (6,570) |  |  | (122,426) |
End of period | $ | (3,163,967) |  |  | $ | (3,169,866) |  |  | $ | (3,163,967) |  |  | $ | (3,169,866) |
NONCONTROLLING INTERESTS: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | 22,388 |  |  | $ | 9,678 |  |  | $ | 14,719 |  |  | $ | 14,995 |
(Contributions) distributions | (73) |  |  | (429) |  |  | 5,061 |  |  | (8,376) |
Net income | 1,595 |  |  | 6,021 |  |  | 4,131 |  |  | 8,652 |
Other comprehensive loss, net of tax | — |  |  | — |  |  | (1) |  |  | (1) |
End of period | $ | 23,910 |  |  | $ | 15,270 |  |  | $ | 23,910 |  |  | $ | 15,270 |

See accompanying notes to interim consolidated financial statements.
4

W. R. BERKLEY CORPORATION AND SUBSIDIARIES
CONSOLIDATED STATEMENTS OF CASH FLOWS (UNAUDITED)
(In thousands)

| For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
| 2022 |  | 2021
CASH FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES: |  |  |
Net income to common stockholders | $ | 998,839 |  |  | $ | 728,060 |
Adjustments to reconcile net income to net cash from operating activities: |  |  |
Net investment gains | (127,299) |  |  | (78,404) |
Depreciation and amortization | 46,037 |  |  | 101,330 |
Noncontrolling interests | 4,131 |  |  | 8,652 |
Investment funds | (121,919) |  |  | (169,538) |
Stock incentive plans | 36,247 |  |  | 36,486 |
Change in: |  |  |
Arbitrage trading account | (39,389) |  |  | (224,613) |
Premiums and fees receivable | (247,782) |  |  | (365,092) |
Reinsurance accounts | (187,453) |  |  | (255,126) |
Deferred policy acquisition costs | (92,724) |  |  | (108,131) |
Income taxes | (111,231) |  |  | (81,574) |
Reserves for losses and loss expenses | 1,225,679 |  |  | 1,164,594 |
Unearned premiums | 551,894 |  |  | 707,658 |
Other | (161,727) |  |  | 60,092 |
Net cash from operating activities | 1,773,303 |  |  | 1,524,394 |
CASH USED IN INVESTING ACTIVITIES: |  |  |
Proceeds from sale of fixed maturity securities | 1,638,049 |  |  | 1,631,849 |
Proceeds from sale of equity securities | 20,057 |  |  | 100,366 |
(Contributions to) distributions from investment funds | (72,925) |  |  | 124,892 |
Proceeds from maturities and prepayments of fixed maturity securities | 3,916,331 |  |  | 4,672,562 |
Purchase of fixed maturity securities | (7,694,663) |  |  | (8,442,260) |
Purchase of equity securities | (340,158) |  |  | (340,424) |
Real estate (purchased) sold | (18,670) |  |  | 182,998 |
Change in loans receivable | 2,066 |  |  | (27,764) |
Net purchases of property, furniture and equipment | (35,270) |  |  | (53,558) |
Change in balances due to security brokers | 177,457 |  |  | 110,752 |
Cash received in connection with business disposition | 906,789 |  |  | — |
Payment for business purchased net of cash acquired | (49,572) |  |  | — |
Other | 94 |  |  | 14 |
Net cash used in investing activities | (1,550,415) |  |  | (2,040,573) |
CASH (USED IN) FROM FINANCING ACTIVITIES: |  |  |
Repayment of senior notes and other debt | (426,503) |  |  | (503,914) |
Net proceeds from issuance of debt | 2,181 |  |  | 1,032,404 |
Cash dividends to common stockholders | (182,147) |  |  | (156,107) |
Purchase of common treasury shares | (6,570) |  |  | (122,426) |
Other, net | (21,808) |  |  | (27,941) |
Net cash (used in) from financing activities | (634,847) |  |  | 222,016 |
Net impact on cash due to change in foreign exchange rates | (26,134) |  |  | (9,174) |
Net change in cash and cash equivalents | (438,093) |  |  | (303,337) |
Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period | 1,568,843 |  |  | 2,372,366 |
Cash and cash equivalents at end of period | $ | 1,130,750 |  |  | $ | 2,069,029 |

See accompanying notes to interim consolidated financial statements.
5

W. R. Berkley Corporation and Subsidiaries
NOTES TO INTERIM CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (UNAUDITED)
(1) General
The unaudited consolidated financial statements, which include the accounts of W. R. Berkley Corporation and its subsidiaries (the “Company”), have been prepared on the basis of U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (“GAAP”) for interim financial information. Accordingly, they do not include all the information and notes required by GAAP for annual financial statements. The unaudited consolidated financial statements reflect all adjustments, consisting only of normal recurring items, which are necessary to present fairly the Company’s financial position and results of operations on a basis consistent with the prior audited consolidated financial statements. Operating results for interim periods are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for the year. All significant intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated. The preparation of financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the revenues and expenses reflected during the reporting period. For further information related to areas of judgment and estimates and other information necessary to understand the Company’s financial position and results of operations, refer to the audited consolidated financial statements and notes included in the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2021.
Reclassifications have been made in the 2021 financial statements as originally reported to conform to the presentation of the 2022 financial statements. Shares outstanding and per share amounts have been adjusted to reflect the 3-for-2 common stock split effected on March 23, 2022.
The income tax provision has been computed based on the Company’s estimated annual effective tax rate. The effective income tax rate differs from the federal income tax rate of 21% primarily due to a net reduction to the Company’s valuation allowance against foreign tax credits and foreign net operating losses and tax benefits related to equity-based compensation, which was partially offset by state income taxes.
(2) Per Share Data
The Company presents both basic and diluted net income per share (“EPS”) amounts. Basic EPS is calculated by dividing net income by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding during the period (including 11,592,699 and 11,651,811 common shares held in a grantor trust as of September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively). The common shares held in the grantor trust are for delivery upon settlement of vested but mandatorily deferred restricted stock units ("RSUs"). Shares held by the grantor trust do not affect diluted shares outstanding since the shares deliverable under vested RSUs were already included in diluted shares outstanding. Diluted EPS is based upon the weighted average number of basic and common equivalent shares outstanding during the period and is calculated using the treasury stock method for stock incentive plans. Common equivalent shares are excluded from the computation in periods in which they have an anti-dilutive effect.
The weighted average number of common shares used in the computation of basic and diluted earnings per share was as follows:

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Basic | 277,192 |  |  | 277,547 |  |  | 276,928 |  |  | 277,691 |
Diluted | 279,642 |  |  | 280,113 |  |  | 279,644 |  |  | 280,590 |

(3) Recent Accounting Pronouncements and Accounting Policies
Recently adopted accounting pronouncements:
All accounting and reporting standards that became effective in 2022 were either not applicable to the Company or their adoption did not have a material impact on the Company.
Accounting and reporting standards that are not yet effective:
All recently issued but not yet effective accounting and reporting standards are either not applicable to the Company or are not expected to have a material impact on the Company.
6

(4) Acquisition
In March 2022, the Company acquired an 80.0% ownership interest for $51.1 million in a company engaged in residential and commercial textiles. The fair value of the assets acquired and liabilities assumed have been estimated based on a preliminary valuation. The fair values of the assets and liabilities will be adjusted, as needed, following completion of the final valuation.
The following table summarizes the initial estimated fair value of net assets acquired and liabilities assumed for the business combination completed in 2022:

(In thousands) | 2022
Cash and cash equivalents | $ | 1,564 |
Real estate, furniture and equipment | 2,527 |
Intangible assets | 48,787 |
Other assets | 11,275 |
Total assets acquired | 64,153 |
Other liabilities assumed | (5,417) |
Noncontrolling interest | (7,600) |
Net assets acquired | $ | 51,136 |

7

(5) Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive (Loss) Income
The following table presents the components of the changes in accumulated other comprehensive (loss) income ("AOCI"):

(In thousands) | Unrealized Investment (Losses) Gains |  | Currency Translation Adjustments |  |  | Accumulated Other Comprehensive (Loss) Income
As of and for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |
Changes in AOCI |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | 90,900 |  |  | $ | (372,855) |  |  |  | $ | (281,955) |
Other comprehensive loss before reclassifications | (1,134,657) |  |  | (27,637) |  |  |  | (1,162,294) |
Amounts reclassified from AOCI | 58,440 |  |  | — |  |  |  | 58,440 |
Other comprehensive loss | (1,076,217) |  |  | (27,637) |  |  |  | (1,103,854) |
Unrealized investment loss related to noncontrolling interest | (1) |  |  | — |  |  |  | (1) |
End of period | $ | (985,318) |  |  | $ | (400,492) |  |  |  | $ | (1,385,810) |
Amounts reclassified from AOCI |  |  |  |  |  |
Pre-tax | $ | 73,975 |  | (1) | $ | — |  |  |  | $ | 73,975 |
Tax effect | (15,535) |  | (2) | — |  |  |  | (15,535) |
After-tax amounts reclassified | $ | 58,440 |  |  | $ | — |  |  |  | $ | 58,440 |
Other comprehensive loss |  |  |  |  |  |
Pre-tax | $ | (1,365,064) |  |  | $ | (27,637) |  |  |  | $ | (1,392,701) |
Tax effect | 288,847 |  |  | — |  |  |  | 288,847 |
Other comprehensive loss | $ | (1,076,217) |  |  | $ | (27,637) |  |  |  | $ | (1,103,854) |
As of and for the three months ended September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |
Changes in AOCI |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | (669,654) |  |  | $ | (359,976) |  |  |  | $ | (1,029,630) |
Other comprehensive loss before reclassifications | (335,034) |  |  | (40,516) |  |  |  | (375,550) |
Amounts reclassified from AOCI | 19,370 |  |  | — |  |  |  | 19,370 |
Other comprehensive loss | (315,664) |  |  | (40,516) |  |  |  | (356,180) |
Unrealized investment loss related to noncontrolling interest | — |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |
Ending balance | $ | (985,318) |  |  | $ | (400,492) |  |  |  | $ | (1,385,810) |
Amounts reclassified from AOCI |  |  |  |  |  |
Pre-tax | $ | 24,519 |  | (1) | $ | — |  |  |  | $ | 24,519 |
Tax effect | (5,149) |  | (2) | — |  |  |  | (5,149) |
After-tax amounts reclassified | $ | 19,370 |  |  | $ | — |  |  |  | $ | 19,370 |
Other comprehensive loss |  |  |  |  |  |
Pre-tax | $ | (394,832) |  |  | $ | (40,516) |  |  |  | $ | (435,348) |
Tax effect | 79,168 |  |  | — |  |  |  | 79,168 |
Other comprehensive loss | $ | (315,664) |  |  | $ | (40,516) |  |  |  | $ | (356,180) |

8

As of and for the nine months ended September 30, 2021 |  |  |  |  |
Changes in AOCI |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | 289,714 |  |  | $ | (351,886) |  |  |  | $ | (62,172) |
Other comprehensive loss before reclassifications | (120,695) |  |  | (26,235) |  |  |  | (146,930) |
Amounts reclassified from AOCI | 18,241 |  |  | — |  |  |  | 18,241 |
Other comprehensive loss | (102,454) |  |  | (26,235) |  |  |  | (128,689) |
Unrealized investment loss related to noncontrolling interest | (1) |  |  | — |  |  |  | (1) |
End of period | $ | 187,259 |  |  | $ | (378,121) |  |  |  | $ | (190,862) |
Amounts reclassified from AOCI |  |  |  |  |  |
Pre-tax | $ | 23,091 |  | (1) | $ | — |  |  |  | $ | 23,091 |
Tax effect | (4,850) |  | (2) | — |  |  |  | (4,850) |
After-tax amounts reclassified | $ | 18,241 |  |  | $ | — |  |  |  | $ | 18,241 |
Other comprehensive loss |  |  |  |  |  |
Pre-tax | $ | (130,201) |  |  | $ | (26,235) |  |  |  | $ | (156,436) |
Tax effect | 27,747 |  |  | — |  |  |  | 27,747 |
Other comprehensive loss | $ | (102,454) |  |  | $ | (26,235) |  |  |  | $ | (128,689) |
As of and for the three months ended September 30, 2021 |  |  |  |  |  |
Changes in AOCI |  |  |  |  |
Beginning of period | $ | 222,855 |  |  | $ | (345,299) |  |  |  | $ | (122,444) |
Other comprehensive loss before reclassifications | (36,249) |  |  | (32,822) |  |  |  | (69,071) |
Amounts reclassified from AOCI | 653 |  |  | — |  |  |  | 653 |
Other comprehensive loss | (35,596) |  |  | (32,822) |  |  |  | (68,418) |
Unrealized investment loss related to noncontrolling interest | — |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |
Ending balance | $ | 187,259 |  |  | $ | (378,121) |  |  |  | $ | (190,862) |
Amounts reclassified from AOCI |  |  |  |  |  |
Pre-tax | $ | 827 |  | (1) | $ | — |  |  |  | $ | 827 |
Tax effect | (174) |  | (2) | — |  |  |  | (174) |
After-tax amounts reclassified | $ | 653 |  |  | $ | — |  |  |  | $ | 653 |
Other comprehensive loss |  |  |  |  |  |
Pre-tax | $ | (45,270) |  |  | $ | (32,822) |  |  |  | $ | (78,092) |
Tax effect | 9,674 |  |  | — |  |  |  | 9,674 |
Other comprehensive loss | $ | (35,596) |  |  | $ | (32,822) |  |  |  | $ | (68,418) |

____________
(1) Net investment (losses) gains in the consolidated statements of income.
(2) Income tax expense in the consolidated statements of income.
(6) Statements of Cash Flows
Interest payments were $115,756,000 and $119,381,000 for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively. Income taxes paid were $263,971,000 and $244,029,000 for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively.
9

(7) Investments in Fixed Maturity Securities
At September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, investments in fixed maturity securities were as follows:

(In thousands) | Amortized Cost |  | Allowance for Expected Credit Losses (1) |  | Gross Unrealized |  | Fair Value |  | Carrying Value
Gains |  | Losses |
September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Held to maturity: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
State and municipal | $ | 47,139 |  |  | $ | (121) |  |  | $ | 3,522 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 50,540 |  |  | $ | 47,018 |
Residential mortgage-backed | 3,816 |  |  | — |  |  | 28 |  |  | — |  |  | 3,844 |  |  | 3,816 |
Total held to maturity | 50,955 |  |  | (121) |  |  | 3,550 |  |  | — |  |  | 54,384 |  |  | 50,834 |
Available for sale: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agency | 937,214 |  |  | — |  |  | 2,185 |  |  | (68,807) |  |  | 870,592 |  |  | 870,592 |
State and municipal: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Special revenue | 1,877,116 |  |  | — |  |  | 3,235 |  |  | (128,427) |  |  | 1,751,924 |  |  | 1,751,924 |
State general obligation | 366,596 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,907 |  |  | (22,956) |  |  | 345,547 |  |  | 345,547 |
Pre-refunded | 156,685 |  |  | — |  |  | 946 |  |  | (200) |  |  | 157,431 |  |  | 157,431 |
Corporate backed | 198,649 |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | (13,558) |  |  | 185,091 |  |  | 185,091 |
Local general obligation | 449,975 |  |  | — |  |  | 2,635 |  |  | (19,479) |  |  | 433,131 |  |  | 433,131 |
Total state and municipal | 3,049,021 |  |  | — |  |  | 8,723 |  |  | (184,620) |  |  | 2,873,124 |  |  | 2,873,124 |
Mortgage-backed: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Residential | 1,297,413 |  |  | (21) |  |  | 210 |  |  | (163,514) |  |  | 1,134,088 |  |  | 1,134,088 |
Commercial | 474,049 |  |  | — |  |  | 52 |  |  | (17,164) |  |  | 456,937 |  |  | 456,937 |
Total mortgage-backed | 1,771,462 |  |  | (21) |  |  | 262 |  |  | (180,678) |  |  | 1,591,025 |  |  | 1,591,025 |
Asset-backed | 4,402,479 |  |  | — |  |  | 433 |  |  | (161,474) |  |  | 4,241,438 |  |  | 4,241,438 |
Corporate: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Industrial | 3,408,585 |  |  | (319) |  |  | 1,604 |  |  | (278,084) |  |  | 3,131,786 |  |  | 3,131,786 |
Financial | 2,411,487 |  |  | (660) |  |  | 1,345 |  |  | (142,620) |  |  | 2,269,552 |  |  | 2,269,552 |
Utilities | 499,140 |  |  | (220) |  |  | — |  |  | (40,823) |  |  | 458,097 |  |  | 458,097 |
Other | 357,472 |  |  | — |  |  | 8 |  |  | (12,171) |  |  | 345,309 |  |  | 345,309 |
Total corporate | 6,676,684 |  |  | (1,199) |  |  | 2,957 |  |  | (473,698) |  |  | 6,204,744 |  |  | 6,204,744 |
Foreign government | 1,579,846 |  |  | (33,375) |  |  | 1,395 |  |  | (148,687) |  |  | 1,399,179 |  |  | 1,399,179 |
Total available for sale | 18,416,706 |  |  | (34,595) |  |  | 15,955 |  |  | (1,217,964) |  |  | 17,180,102 |  |  | 17,180,102 |
Total investments in fixed maturity securities | $ | 18,467,661 |  |  | $ | (34,716) |  |  | $ | 19,505 |  |  | $ | (1,217,964) |  |  | $ | 17,234,486 |  |  | $ | 17,230,936 |

____________
(1) Represents the amount of impairment that has resulted from credit-related factors. The change in the allowance for expected credit losses is recognized in the consolidated statements of income. Amount excludes unrealized losses relating to non-credit factors.
10

(In thousands) | Amortized Cost |  | Allowance for Expected Credit Losses (1) |  | Gross Unrealized |  | Fair Value |  | Carrying Value |  |
| Gains |  | Losses |  |
December 31, 2021 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Held to maturity: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
State and municipal | $ | 69,539 |  |  | $ | (387) |  |  | $ | 10,813 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 79,965 |  |  | $ | 69,152 |  |  |
Residential mortgage-backed | 4,829 |  |  | — |  |  | 632 |  |  | — |  |  | 5,461 |  |  | 4,829 |  |  |
Total held to maturity | 74,368 |  |  | (387) |  |  | 11,445 |  |  | — |  |  | 85,426 |  |  | 73,981 |  |  |
Available for sale: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agency | 851,128 |  |  | — |  |  | 8,509 |  |  | (4,294) |  |  | 855,343 |  |  | 855,343 |  |  |
State and municipal: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Special revenue | 2,016,382 |  |  | — |  |  | 62,961 |  |  | (5,706) |  |  | 2,073,637 |  |  | 2,073,637 |  |  |
State general obligation | 388,110 |  |  | — |  |  | 23,152 |  |  | (1,015) |  |  | 410,247 |  |  | 410,247 |  |  |
Pre-refunded | 202,633 |  |  | — |  |  | 14,891 |  |  | (574) |  |  | 216,950 |  |  | 216,950 |  |  |
Corporate backed | 166,943 |  |  | — |  |  | 7,191 |  |  | (1,532) |  |  | 172,602 |  |  | 172,602 |  |  |
Local general obligation | 401,974 |  |  | — |  |  | 29,455 |  |  | (732) |  |  | 430,697 |  |  | 430,697 |  |  |
Total state and municipal | 3,176,042 |  |  | — |  |  | 137,650 |  |  | (9,559) |  |  | 3,304,133 |  |  | 3,304,133 |  |  |
Mortgage-backed: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Residential | 940,744 |  |  | — |  |  | 9,896 |  |  | (11,321) |  |  | 939,319 |  |  | 939,319 |  |  |
Commercial | 125,709 |  |  | — |  |  | 3,388 |  |  | (341) |  |  | 128,756 |  |  | 128,756 |  |  |
Total mortgage-backed securities | 1,066,453 |  |  | — |  |  | 13,284 |  |  | (11,662) |  |  | 1,068,075 |  |  | 1,068,075 |  |  |
Asset-backed | 4,504,950 |  |  | — |  |  | 4,409 |  |  | (18,794) |  |  | 4,490,565 |  |  | 4,490,565 |  |  |
Corporate: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Industrial | 3,231,520 |  |  | (16) |  |  | 62,751 |  |  | (21,092) |  |  | 3,273,163 |  |  | 3,273,163 |  |  |
Financial | 1,739,282 |  |  | — |  |  | 30,709 |  |  | (6,591) |  |  | 1,763,400 |  |  | 1,763,400 |  |  |
Utilities | 396,242 |  |  | — |  |  | 13,262 |  |  | (3,202) |  |  | 406,302 |  |  | 406,302 |  |  |
Other | 154,210 |  |  | — |  |  | 125 |  |  | (1,525) |  |  | 152,810 |  |  | 152,810 |  |  |
Total corporate | 5,521,254 |  |  | (16) |  |  | 106,847 |  |  | (32,410) |  |  | 5,595,675 |  |  | 5,595,675 |  |  |
Foreign government | 1,277,109 |  |  | (22,222) |  |  | 7,508 |  |  | (47,494) |  |  | 1,214,901 |  |  | 1,214,901 |  |  |
Total available for sale | 16,396,936 |  |  | (22,238) |  |  | 278,207 |  |  | (124,213) |  |  | 16,528,692 |  |  | 16,528,692 |  |  |
Total investments in fixed maturity securities | $ | 16,471,304 |  |  | $ | (22,625) |  |  | $ | 289,652 |  |  | $ | (124,213) |  |  | $ | 16,614,118 |  |  | $ | 16,602,673 |  |  |

____________
(1) Represents the amount of impairment that has resulted from credit-related factors. The change in the allowance for expected credit losses is recognized in the consolidated statements of income. Amount excludes unrealized losses relating to non-credit factors.
The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses for held to maturity securities for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 387 |  |  | $ | 798 |
Provision for expected credit losses | (266) |  |  | (402) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 121 |  |  | $ | 396 |

The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses for held to maturity securities for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 127 |  |  | $ | 453 |
Provision for expected credit losses | (6) |  |  | (57) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 121 |  |  | $ | 396 |

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The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses for available for sale securities for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

| 2022 |  | 2021
(In thousands) | Foreign Government |  | Corporate |  | Mortgage-backed |  | Total |  | Foreign Government |  | Corporate |  | Total
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 22,222 |  |  | $ | 16 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | 22,238 |  |  | $ | 1,264 |  |  | $ | 518 |  |  | $ | 1,782 |
Expected credit losses on securities for which credit losses were not previously recorded | 1,897 |  |  | 1,205 |  |  | 21 |  |  | 3,123 |  |  | 19,072 |  |  | 16 |  |  | 19,088 |
Expected credit losses (gains) on securities for which credit losses were previously recorded | 9,289 |  |  | (22) |  |  | — |  |  | 9,267 |  |  | (2,967) |  |  | (517) |  |  | (3,484) |
Reduction due to disposals | (33) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | (33) |  |  | (494) |  |  | (5) |  |  | (499) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 33,375 |  |  | $ | 1,199 |  |  | $ | 21 |  |  | $ | 34,595 |  |  | $ | 16,875 |  |  | $ | 12 |  |  | $ | 16,887 |

During the nine months ended September 30, 2022, the Company increased the allowance for expected credit losses for available for sale securities utilizing its credit loss assessment process and inputs used in its credit loss model due to an increase in unrealized losses primarily associated with foreign government securities. During the nine months ended September 30, 2021, the Company increased the allowance for expected credit losses for available for sale securities primarily due to foreign government securities that had no reserve in prior periods.
The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses for available for sale securities for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

| 2022 |  | 2021
(In thousands) | Foreign Government |  | Corporate |  | Mortgage-backed |  | Total |  | Foreign Government |  | Corporate |  | Total
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 33,096 |  |  | $ | 182 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 33,278 |  |  | $ | 18,899 |  |  | $ | 12 |  |  | $ | 18,911 |
Expected credit losses on securities for which credit losses were not previously recorded | — |  |  | 1,023 |  |  | 21 |  |  | 1,044 |  |  | 82 |  |  | — |  |  | 82 |
Expected credit losses (gains) on securities for which credit losses were previously recorded | 279 |  |  | (6) |  |  | — |  |  | 273 |  |  | (2,106) |  |  | — |  |  | (2,106) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 33,375 |  |  | $ | 1,199 |  |  | $ | 21 |  |  | $ | 34,595 |  |  | $ | 16,875 |  |  | $ | 12 |  |  | $ | 16,887 |

The amortized cost and fair value of fixed maturity securities at September 30, 2022, by contractual maturity, are shown below. Actual maturities may differ from contractual maturities because certain issuers may have the right to call or prepay obligations.

(In thousands) | Amortized Cost (1) |  | Fair Value |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Due in one year or less | $ | 1,744,722 |  |  | $ | 1,691,497 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Due after one year through five years | 8,461,536 |  |  | 7,982,948 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Due after five years through ten years | 4,388,799 |  |  | 4,041,900 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Due after ten years | 2,097,205 |  |  | 1,923,272 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Mortgage-backed securities | 1,775,278 |  |  | 1,594,869 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Total | $ | 18,467,540 |  |  | $ | 17,234,486 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

________________
(1) Amortized cost is reduced by the allowance for expected credit losses of $121 thousand related to held to maturity securities.
At September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, there were no investments that exceeded 10% of common stockholders' equity, other than investments in United States government and government agency securities.
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(8) Investments in Equity Securities
At September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, investments in equity securities were as follows:

(In thousands) | Cost |  | Gross Unrealized |  | Fair Value |  | Carrying Value
Gains |  | Losses |
September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stocks | $ | 931,753 |  |  | $ | 109,288 |  |  | $ | (88,672) |  |  | $ | 952,369 |  |  | $ | 952,369 |
Preferred stocks | 259,338 |  |  | 2,376 |  |  | (40,494) |  |  | 221,220 |  |  | 221,220 |
Total | $ | 1,191,091 |  |  | $ | 111,664 |  |  | $ | (129,166) |  |  | $ | 1,173,589 |  |  | $ | 1,173,589 |
December 31, 2021 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stocks | $ | 619,896 |  |  | $ | 92,401 |  |  | $ | (16,894) |  |  | $ | 695,403 |  |  | $ | 695,403 |
Preferred stocks | 250,149 |  |  | 7,874 |  |  | (12,183) |  |  | 245,840 |  |  | 245,840 |
Total | $ | 870,045 |  |  | $ | 100,275 |  |  | $ | (29,077) |  |  | $ | 941,243 |  |  | $ | 941,243 |

(9) Arbitrage Trading Account
At September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, the fair and carrying values of the arbitrage trading account were $1,165 million and $1,180 million, respectively. The primary focus of the trading account is merger arbitrage. Merger arbitrage is the business of investing in the securities of publicly held companies which are the targets in announced tender offers and mergers. Arbitrage investing differs from other types of investing in its focus on transactions and events believed likely to bring about a change in value over a relatively short time period (usually four months or less).
The Company uses put options and call options in order to mitigate the impact of potential changes in market conditions on the merger arbitrage trading account. These options are reported at fair value. As of September 30, 2022, the fair value of long option contracts outstanding was $132 thousand (notional amount of $1.1 million) and the fair value of short option contracts outstanding was $6 thousand (notional amount of $0.6 million). Other than with respect to the use of these trading account securities, the Company does not make use of derivatives.
(10) Net Investment Income
Net investment income consisted of the following:

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Investment income (loss) earned on: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed maturity securities, including cash and cash equivalents and loans receivable | $ | 146,051 |  |  | $ | 93,031 |  |  | $ | 371,724 |  |  | $ | 284,704 |
Investment funds | 36,045 |  |  | 69,292 |  |  | 121,919 |  |  | 169,538 |
Arbitrage trading account | 10,694 |  |  | 7,187 |  |  | 24,008 |  |  | 30,176 |
Equity securities | 14,650 |  |  | 8,462 |  |  | 38,303 |  |  | 21,854 |
Real estate | (2,297) |  |  | 3,485 |  |  | (1,702) |  |  | 5,517 |
Gross investment income | 205,143 |  |  | 181,457 |  |  | 554,252 |  |  | 511,789 |
Investment expense | (2,327) |  |  | (1,606) |  |  | (6,350) |  |  | (5,174) |
Net investment income | $ | 202,816 |  |  | $ | 179,851 |  |  | $ | 547,902 |  |  | $ | 506,615 |

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(11) Investment Funds
The Company evaluates whether it is an investor in a variable interest entity ("VIE"). Such entities do not have sufficient equity at risk to finance their activities without additional subordinated financial support, or the equity investors, as a group, do not have the characteristics of a controlling financial interest (primary beneficiary). The Company determines whether it is the primary beneficiary of an entity subject to consolidation based on a qualitative assessment of the VIE's capital structure, contractual terms, nature of the VIE's operations and purpose, and the Company's relative exposure to the related risks of the VIE on the date it becomes initially involved in the VIE and on an ongoing basis. The Company is not the primary beneficiary in any of its investment funds, and accordingly, carries its interests in investment funds under the equity method of accounting.
The Company’s maximum exposure to loss with respect to these investments is limited to the carrying amount reported on the Company’s consolidated balance sheet and its unfunded commitments, which were $538 million as of September 30, 2022.
Investment funds consisted of the following:

| Carrying Value as of |  | Income from Investment Funds
| September 30, |  | December 31, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Financial services | $ | 467,954 |  |  | $ | 431,818 |  |  | $ | 27,472 |  |  | $ | 83,455 |
Transportation | 346,755 |  |  | 336,688 |  |  | 48,249 |  |  | 31,805 |
Real Estate | 225,242 |  |  | 273,690 |  |  | 42,708 |  |  | 18,497 |
Energy | 121,237 |  |  | 150,224 |  |  | 1,966 |  |  | 14,065 |
Infrastructure | 111,353 |  |  | 12,314 |  |  | 1,277 |  |  | 1,154 |
Other funds | 389,488 |  |  | 275,878 |  |  | 247 |  |  | 20,562 |
Total | $ | 1,662,029 |  |  | $ | 1,480,612 |  |  | $ | 121,919 |  |  | $ | 169,538 |

The Company's share of the earnings or losses from investment funds is generally reported on a one-quarter lag in order to facilitate the timely completion of the Company's consolidated financial statements.
Financial services investment funds include the minority investment in Lifson Re, a Bermuda reinsurance company. Effective January 1, 2021, Lifson Re participated on a fully collateralized basis in a majority of the Company’s reinsurance placements for a 22.5% share of placed amounts. The percentage increased from 22.5% to 30.0% effective July 1, 2022. This pertains to all traditional reinsurance/retrocessional placements for both property and casualty business where there is more than one open market reinsurer participating. For the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021, the Company ceded approximately $308 million and $182 million, respectively, of written premiums to Lifson Re.
Other funds include deferred compensation trust assets of $31 million and $34 million as of September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively. These assets support other liabilities reflected in the balance sheet of an equal amount for employees who have elected to defer a portion of their compensation. The change in the net asset value of the trust is recorded in other funds within net investment income with an offsetting equal amount within corporate expenses.
(12) Real Estate
Investment in real estate represents directly owned property held for investment, as follows:

| Carrying Value
| September 30, |  | December 31,
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Properties in operation | $ | 1,094,732 |  |  | $ | 1,626,826 |
Properties under development | 225,818 |  |  | 225,682 |
Total | $ | 1,320,550 |  |  | $ | 1,852,508 |

As of September 30, 2022, properties in operation included a long-term ground lease in Washington, D.C., an office complex in New York City and the completed portion of a mixed-use project in Washington D.C. Properties in operation are net of accumulated depreciation and amortization of $32,016,000 and $57,391,000 as of September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively. Related depreciation expense was $9,934,000 and $14,412,000 for the nine months ended September 30,
14

2022 and 2021, respectively. Future minimum rental income expected on operating leases relating to properties in operation is $8,019,763 in 2022, $31,343,979 in 2023, $32,033,785 in 2024, $29,482,786 in 2025, $27,653,706 in 2026, $26,714,837 in 2027 and $499,542,813 thereafter.
During the first quarter of 2022, the Company sold a real estate investment in London.
A mixed-use project in Washington, D.C. had been under development in 2022 and 2021, with the completed portion reported in properties in operation as of September 30, 2022.
(13) Loans Receivable
At September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, loans receivable were as follows:

(In thousands) | September 30, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021
Amortized cost (net of allowance for expected credit losses): |  |  |
Real estate loans | $ | 88,799 |  |  | $ | 89,431 |
Commercial loans | 24,001 |  |  | 25,741 |
Total | $ | 112,800 |  |  | $ | 115,172 |
Fair value: |  |  |
Real estate loans | $ | 87,523 |  |  | $ | 90,793 |
Commercial loans | 24,001 |  |  | 25,741 |
Total | $ | 111,524 |  |  | $ | 116,534 |

The real estate loans are secured by commercial and residential real estate primarily located in New York. These loans generally earn interest at fixed or stepped interest rates and have maturities through 2026. The commercial loans are with small business owners who have secured the related financing with the assets of the business. Commercial loans primarily earn interest on a fixed basis and have varying maturities generally not exceeding 10 years.
Loans receivable in non-accrual status were none and $0.2 million as of September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively.
The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses for loans receivable for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

| 2022 |  | 2021
(In thousands) | Real Estate Loans |  | Commercial Loans |  | Total |  | Real Estate Loans |  | Commercial Loans |  | Total
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 1,362 |  |  | $ | 356 |  |  | $ | 1,718 |  |  | $ | 1,683 |  |  | $ | 3,754 |  |  | $ | 5,437 |
Change in expected credit losses | (200) |  |  | 474 |  |  | 274 |  |  | (254) |  |  | (3,446) |  |  | (3,700) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 1,162 |  |  | $ | 830 |  |  | $ | 1,992 |  |  | $ | 1,429 |  |  | $ | 308 |  |  | $ | 1,737 |

During the nine months ended September 30, 2022, the Company increased the allowance primarily due to an increase in the weighted average life of the loans receivable portfolio. During the nine months ended September 30, 2021, the Company reduced the allowance primarily due to the disposal of certain loans.
The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses for loans receivable for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

| 2022 |  | 2021
(In thousands) | Real Estate Loans |  | Commercial Loans |  | Total |  | Real Estate Loans |  | Commercial Loans |  | Total
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 1,228 |  |  | $ | 947 |  |  | $ | 2,175 |  |  | $ | 1,501 |  |  | $ | 469 |  |  | $ | 1,970 |
Change in expected credit losses | (66) |  |  | (117) |  |  | (183) |  |  | (72) |  |  | (161) |  |  | (233) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 1,162 |  |  | $ | 830 |  |  | $ | 1,992 |  |  | $ | 1,429 |  |  | $ | 308 |  |  | $ | 1,737 |

15

The Company monitors the performance of its loans receivable and assesses the ability of the borrower to pay principal and interest based upon loan structure, underlying property values, cash flow and related financial and operating performance of the property and market conditions.
In evaluating the real estate loans, the Company considers their credit quality indicators, including loan to value ratios, which compare the outstanding loan amount to the estimated value of the property, the borrower’s financial condition and performance with respect to loan terms, the position in the capital structure, the overall leverage in the capital structure and other market conditions.
16

(14) Net Investment (Losses) Gains
Net investment (losses) gains were as follows:

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Net investment (losses) gains: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed maturity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Gains | $ | 1,053 |  |  | $ | 2,943 |  |  | $ | 3,405 |  |  | $ | 16,623 |
Losses | (2,309) |  |  | (1,124) |  |  | (8,752) |  |  | (5,431) |
Equity securities (1): |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Net realized gains on investment sales | — |  |  | 2 |  |  | 946 |  |  | 14,830 |
Change in unrealized losses | (50,384) |  |  | (19,244) |  |  | (88,701) |  |  | (61,818) |
Investment funds | (1,717) |  |  | 2,526 |  |  | (6,241) |  |  | 49,897 |
Real estate (2) | 9,026 |  |  | 33,364 |  |  | 295,576 |  |  | 95,765 |
Loans receivable | — |  |  | — |  |  | (32) |  |  | (881) |
Other | (21,951) |  |  | (1,280) |  |  | (56,537) |  |  | (19,578) |
Net realized and unrealized (losses) gains on investments in earnings before allowance for expected credit losses | (66,282) |  |  | 17,187 |  |  | 139,664 |  |  | 89,407 |
Change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed maturity securities | (1,311) |  |  | 2,081 |  |  | (12,091) |  |  | (14,703) |
Loans receivable | 183 |  |  | 233 |  |  | (274) |  |  | 3,700 |
Change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments | (1,128) |  |  | 2,314 |  |  | (12,365) |  |  | (11,003) |
Net investment (losses) gains | (67,410) |  |  | 19,501 |  |  | 127,299 |  |  | 78,404 |
Income tax benefit (expense) | 14,456 |  |  | (4,266) |  |  | (26,466) |  |  | (15,417) |
After-tax net investment (losses) gains | $ | (52,954) |  |  | $ | 15,235 |  |  | $ | 100,833 |  |  | $ | 62,987 |

Change in unrealized investment (losses) gains on available for sale securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed maturity securities without allowance for expected credit losses | $ | (385,503) |  |  | $ | (41,041) |  |  | $ | (1,335,413) |  |  | $ | (135,099) |
Fixed maturity securities with allowance for expected credit losses | (4,005) |  |  | 111 |  |  | (20,590) |  |  | 10,397 |
Investment funds | (5,031) |  |  | (4,098) |  |  | (7,863) |  |  | (4,355) |
Other | (293) |  |  | (242) |  |  | (1,198) |  |  | (1,144) |
Total change in unrealized investment losses | (394,832) |  |  | (45,270) |  |  | (1,365,064) |  |  | (130,201) |
Income tax benefit | 79,168 |  |  | 9,674 |  |  | 288,847 |  |  | 27,747 |
Noncontrolling interests | — |  |  | — |  |  | (1) |  |  | (1) |
After-tax change in unrealized investment losses of available for sale securities | $ | (315,664) |  |  | $ | (35,596) |  |  | $ | (1,076,218) |  |  | $ | (102,455) |

______________________
(1) The net realized gains or losses on investment sales represent the total gains or losses from the purchase dates of the equity securities. The change in unrealized (losses) gains consists of two components: (i) the reversal of the gain or loss recognized in previous periods on equity securities sold and (ii) the change in unrealized gain or loss resulting from mark-to-market adjustments on equity securities still held.
(2) During March 2022, the Company realized a gain on the sale of a real estate investment in London, U.K. of $251 million, net of transaction expenses and the foreign currency impact, including the reversal of the currency translation adjustment.
17

(15) Fixed Maturity Securities in an Unrealized Loss Position
The following tables summarize all fixed maturity securities in an unrealized loss position at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021 by the length of time those securities have been continuously in an unrealized loss position:

| Less Than 12 Months |  | 12 Months or Greater |  | Total
(In thousands) | Fair Value |  | Gross Unrealized Losses |  | Fair Value |  | Gross Unrealized Losses |  | Fair Value |  | Gross Unrealized Losses
September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agency | $ | 578,877 |  |  | $ | 63,917 |  |  | $ | 75,024 |  |  | $ | 4,890 |  |  | $ | 653,901 |  |  | $ | 68,807 |
State and municipal | 2,158,379 |  |  | 139,486 |  |  | 268,007 |  |  | 45,134 |  |  | 2,426,386 |  |  | 184,620 |
Mortgage-backed | 1,260,172 |  |  | 117,781 |  |  | 278,990 |  |  | 62,897 |  |  | 1,539,162 |  |  | 180,678 |
Asset-backed | 2,416,683 |  |  | 97,758 |  |  | 1,595,161 |  |  | 63,716 |  |  | 4,011,844 |  |  | 161,474 |
Corporate | 4,933,243 |  |  | 314,122 |  |  | 1,126,858 |  |  | 159,576 |  |  | 6,060,101 |  |  | 473,698 |
Foreign government | 996,723 |  |  | 80,329 |  |  | 359,283 |  |  | 68,358 |  |  | 1,356,006 |  |  | 148,687 |
Fixed maturity securities | $ | 12,344,077 |  |  | $ | 813,393 |  |  | $ | 3,703,323 |  |  | $ | 404,571 |  |  | $ | 16,047,400 |  |  | $ | 1,217,964 |
December 31, 2021 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agency | $ | 487,712 |  |  | $ | 4,026 |  |  | $ | 17,021 |  |  | $ | 268 |  |  | $ | 504,733 |  |  | $ | 4,294 |
State and municipal | 502,333 |  |  | 7,403 |  |  | 29,547 |  |  | 2,156 |  |  | 531,880 |  |  | 9,559 |
Mortgage-backed | 558,751 |  |  | 6,900 |  |  | 106,130 |  |  | 4,762 |  |  | 664,881 |  |  | 11,662 |
Asset-backed | 3,832,944 |  |  | 18,503 |  |  | 75,385 |  |  | 291 |  |  | 3,908,329 |  |  | 18,794 |
Corporate | 2,582,860 |  |  | 29,322 |  |  | 51,095 |  |  | 3,088 |  |  | 2,633,955 |  |  | 32,410 |
Foreign government | 758,975 |  |  | 15,793 |  |  | 82,057 |  |  | 31,701 |  |  | 841,032 |  |  | 47,494 |
Fixed maturity securities | $ | 8,723,575 |  |  | $ | 81,947 |  |  | $ | 361,235 |  |  | $ | 42,266 |  |  | $ | 9,084,810 |  |  | $ | 124,213 |

Substantially all of the securities in an unrealized loss position are rated investment grade, except for the securities in the foreign government classification. A significant amount of the unrealized loss on foreign government securities is the result of changes in currency exchange rates.
A summary of the Company’s non-investment grade fixed maturity securities that were in an unrealized loss position at September 30, 2022 is presented in the table below:

($ in thousands) | Number of Securities |  | Aggregate Fair Value |  | Gross Unrealized Loss
Foreign government | 38 |  |  | $ | 116,869 |  |  | $ | 58,770 |
Corporate | 12 |  |  | 46,657 |  |  | 6,277 |
State and municipal | 1 |  |  | 11,582 |  |  | 3,421 |
Mortgage-backed | 11 |  |  | 3,398 |  |  | 229 |
Asset-backed | 2 |  |  | 38 |  |  | 20 |
Total | 64 |  |  | $ | 178,544 |  |  | $ | 68,717 |

For fixed maturity securities that management does not intend to sell or to be required to sell, the portion of the decline in value that is considered to be due to credit factors is recognized in earnings, and the portion of the decline in value that is considered to be due to non-credit factors is recognized in other comprehensive income (loss).
The Company has evaluated its fixed maturity securities in an unrealized loss position and believes the unrealized losses are due primarily to temporary market and sector-related factors rather than to issuer-specific factors. None of these securities are delinquent or in default under financial covenants. Based on its assessment of these issuers, the Company expects them to continue to meet their contractual payment obligations as they become due.
18

(16) Fair Value Measurements
The Company’s fixed maturity available for sale securities, equity securities and its arbitrage trading account securities are carried at fair value. Fair value is defined as “the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.” The Company utilizes a fair value hierarchy that prioritizes the inputs to valuation techniques used to measure fair value into three broad levels, as follows:
Level 1 - Quoted prices (unadjusted) in active markets for identical assets or liabilities that the Company has the ability to access at the measurement date.
Level 2 - Quoted prices for similar assets or valuations based on inputs that are observable.
Level 3 - Estimates of fair value based on internal pricing methodologies using unobservable inputs. Unobservable inputs are only used to measure fair value to the extent that observable inputs are not available.
Substantially all of the Company’s fixed maturity securities were priced by independent pricing services. The prices provided by the independent pricing services are estimated based on observable market data in active markets utilizing pricing models and processes, which may include benchmark yields, reported trades, broker/dealer quotes, issuer spreads, two-sided markets, benchmark securities, bids, offers, sector groupings, matrix pricing and reference data. The pricing services may prioritize inputs differently on any given day for any security based on market conditions, and not all inputs are available for each security evaluation on any given day. The pricing services used by the Company have indicated that they will only produce an estimate of fair value if objectively verifiable information is available. The determination of whether markets are active or inactive is based upon the volume and level of activity for a particular asset class. The Company reviews the prices provided by pricing services for reasonableness and periodically performs independent price tests of a sample of securities to ensure proper valuation.
If prices from independent pricing services are not available for fixed maturity securities, the Company estimates the fair value. For Level 2 securities, the Company utilizes pricing models and processes which may include benchmark yields, sector groupings, matrix pricing, reported trades, broker/dealer quotes, issuer spreads, two-sided markets, bids, offers and reference data. Where broker quotes are used, the Company generally requests two or more quotes and sets a price within the range of quotes received based on its assessment of the credibility of the quote and its own evaluation of the security. The Company generally does not adjust quotes received from brokers. For securities traded only in private negotiations, the Company determines fair value based primarily on the cost of such securities, which is adjusted to reflect prices of recent placements of securities of the same issuer, financial projections, credit quality and business developments of the issuer and other relevant information.
For Level 3 securities, the Company generally uses a discounted cash flow model to estimate the fair value of fixed maturity securities. The cash flow models are based upon assumptions as to prevailing credit spreads, interest rate and interest rate volatility, time to maturity and subordination levels. Projected cash flows are discounted at rates that are adjusted to reflect illiquidity, where appropriate.
19

The following tables present the assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis as of September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021 by level:

(In thousands) | Total |  | Level 1 |  | Level 2 |  | Level 3
September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Assets: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed maturity securities available for sale: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agency | $ | 870,592 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 870,592 |  |  | $ | — |
State and municipal | 2,873,124 |  |  | — |  |  | 2,873,124 |  |  | — |
Mortgage-backed | 1,591,025 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,591,025 |  |  | — |
Asset-backed | 4,241,438 |  |  | — |  |  | 4,241,438 |  |  | — |
Corporate | 6,204,744 |  |  | — |  |  | 6,204,744 |  |  | — |
Foreign government | 1,399,179 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,399,179 |  |  | — |
Total fixed maturity securities available for sale | 17,180,102 |  |  | — |  |  | 17,180,102 |  |  | — |
Equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stocks | 952,369 |  |  | 948,233 |  |  | 1,145 |  |  | 2,991 |
Preferred stocks | 221,220 |  |  | — |  |  | 209,924 |  |  | 11,296 |
Total equity securities | 1,173,589 |  |  | 948,233 |  |  | 211,069 |  |  | 14,287 |
Arbitrage trading account | 1,165,016 |  |  | 1,123,116 |  |  | 37,373 |  |  | 4,527 |
Total | $ | 19,518,707 |  |  | $ | 2,071,349 |  |  | $ | 17,428,544 |  |  | $ | 18,814 |
Liabilities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Trading account securities sold but not yet purchased | $ | 6 |  |  | $ | 6 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |
December 31, 2021 |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Assets: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed maturity securities available for sale: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agency | $ | 855,343 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 855,343 |  |  | $ | — |
State and municipal | 3,304,133 |  |  | — |  |  | 3,304,133 |  |  | — |
Mortgage-backed | 1,068,075 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,068,075 |  |  | — |
Asset-backed | 4,490,565 |  |  | — |  |  | 4,490,565 |  |  | — |
Corporate | 5,595,675 |  |  | — |  |  | 5,595,675 |  |  | — |
Foreign government | 1,214,901 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,214,901 |  |  | — |
Total fixed maturity securities available for sale | 16,528,692 |  |  | — |  |  | 16,528,692 |  |  | — |
Equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stocks | 695,403 |  |  | 684,470 |  |  | 1,639 |  |  | 9,294 |
Preferred stocks | 245,840 |  |  | — |  |  | 234,544 |  |  | 11,296 |
Total equity securities | 941,243 |  |  | 684,470 |  |  | 236,183 |  |  | 20,590 |
Arbitrage trading account | 1,179,606 |  |  | 1,153,079 |  |  | 26,527 |  |  | — |
Total | $ | 18,649,541 |  |  | $ | 1,837,549 |  |  | $ | 16,791,402 |  |  | $ | 20,590 |
Liabilities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Trading account securities sold but not yet purchased | $ | 1,169 |  |  | $ | 1,137 |  |  | $ | 32 |  |  | $ | — |

20

The following tables summarize changes in Level 3 assets and liabilities for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and for the year ended December 31, 2021:

Gains (Losses) Included In:
(In thousands) | Beginning Balance |  | Earnings (Losses) |  | Other Comprehensive Income (Losses) |  | Impairments |  | Purchases |  | Sales |  | Paydowns / Maturities |  | Transfers In / (Out) |  | Ending Balance
Nine Months Ended September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Assets: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stocks | $ | 9,294 |  |  | $ | (6,303) |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 2,991 |
Preferred stocks | 11,296 |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 925 |  |  | (925) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 11,296 |
Total | 20,590 |  |  | (6,303) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 925 |  |  | (925) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 14,287 |
Arbitrage trading account | — |  |  | (159) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 4,686 |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 4,527 |
Total | $ | 20,590 |  |  | $ | (6,462) |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 5,611 |  |  | $ | (925) |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 18,814 |
Liabilities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Trading account securities sold but not yet purchased | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |
Year Ended December 31, 2021 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Assets: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed maturities securities available for sale: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Corporate | $ | 1,000 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | (1,000) |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |
Total | 1,000 |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | (1,000) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |
Equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stocks | 9,215 |  |  | 640 |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | (561) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 9,294 |
Preferred stocks | 9,331 |  |  | (35) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 2,000 |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 11,296 |
Total | 18,546 |  |  | 605 |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 2,000 |  |  | (561) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 20,590 |
Arbitrage trading account | — |  |  | 8 |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | (8) |  |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |
Total | $ | 19,546 |  |  | $ | 613 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 2,000 |  |  | $ | (1,569) |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 20,590 |
Liabilities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Trading account securities sold but not yet purchased | $ | — |  |  | $ | 1 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | (1) |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |

For the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and for the year ended December 31, 2021, there were no securities transferred into or out of Level 3.
21

(17) Reserves for Loss and Loss Expenses
The Company's reserves for losses and loss expenses are comprised of case reserves and incurred but not reported liabilities ("IBNR"). When a claim is reported, a case reserve is established for the estimated ultimate payment based upon known information about the claim. As more information about the claim becomes available over time, case reserves are adjusted up or down as appropriate. Reserves are also established on an aggregate basis to provide for IBNR liabilities and expected loss reserve development on reported claims.
Loss reserves included in the Company’s financial statements represent management’s best estimates based upon an actuarially derived point estimate and other considerations. The Company uses a variety of actuarial techniques and methods to derive an actuarial point estimate for each operating unit. These methods include paid loss development, incurred loss development, paid and incurred Bornhuetter-Ferguson methods and frequency and severity methods. In circumstances where one actuarial method is considered more credible than the others, that method is used to set the point estimate. The actuarial point estimate may also be based on a judgmental weighting of estimates produced from each of the methods considered. Industry loss experience is used to supplement the Company’s own data in selecting “tail factors” in areas where the Company’s own data is limited. The actuarial data is analyzed by line of business, coverage and accident or policy year, as appropriate, for each operating unit.
The establishment of the actuarially derived loss reserve point estimate also includes consideration of qualitative factors that may affect the ultimate losses. These qualitative considerations include, among others, the impact of re-underwriting initiatives, changes in the mix of business, changes in distribution sources and changes in policy terms and conditions.
The key assumptions used to arrive at the best estimate of loss reserves are the expected loss ratios, rate of loss cost inflation, and reported and paid loss emergence patterns. Expected loss ratios represent management’s expectation of losses at the time the business is priced and written, before any actual claims experience has emerged. This expectation is a significant determinant of the estimate of loss reserves for recently written business where there is little paid or incurred loss data to consider. Expected loss ratios are generally derived from historical loss ratios adjusted for the impact of rate changes, loss cost trends and known changes in the type of risks underwritten. Expected loss ratios are estimated for each key line of business within each operating unit. Expected loss cost inflation is particularly important for the long-tail lines, such as excess casualty, and claims with a high medical component, such as workers’ compensation. Reported and paid loss emergence patterns are used to project current reported or paid loss amounts to their ultimate settlement value. Loss development factors are based on the historical emergence patterns of paid and incurred losses, and are derived from the Company’s own experience and industry data. The paid loss emergence pattern is also significant to excess and assumed workers’ compensation reserves because those reserves are discounted to their estimated present value based upon such estimated payout patterns.
Loss frequency and severity are measures of loss activity that are considered in determining the key assumptions described in our discussion of loss and loss expense reserves, including expected loss ratios, rate of loss cost inflation and reported and paid loss emergence patterns. Loss frequency is a measure of the number of claims per unit of insured exposure, and loss severity is a measure of the average size of claims. Factors affecting loss frequency include the effectiveness of loss controls and safety programs and changes in economic activity or weather patterns. Factors affecting loss severity include changes in policy limits, retentions, rate of inflation and judicial interpretations.
Another factor affecting estimates of loss frequency and severity is the loss reporting lag, which is the period of time between the occurrence of a loss and the date the loss is reported to the Company. The length of the loss reporting lag affects our ability to accurately predict loss frequency (loss frequencies are more predictable for lines with short reporting lags) as well as the amount of reserves needed for incurred but not reported losses (less IBNR is required for lines with short reporting lags). As a result, loss reserves for lines with short reporting lags are likely to have less variation from initial loss estimates. For lines with short reporting lags, which include commercial automobile, primary workers’ compensation, other liability (claims-made) and property business, the key assumption is the loss emergence pattern used to project ultimate loss estimates from known losses paid or reported to date. For lines of business with long reporting lags, which include other liability (occurrence), products liability, excess workers’ compensation and liability reinsurance, the key assumption is the expected loss ratio since there is often little paid or incurred loss data to consider. Historically, the Company has experienced less variation from its initial loss estimates for lines of businesses with short reporting lags than for lines of business with long reporting lags.
The key assumptions used in calculating the most recent estimate of the loss reserves are reviewed each quarter and adjusted, to the extent necessary, to reflect the latest reported loss data, current trends and other factors observed.
22

The table below provides a reconciliation of the beginning and ending reserve balances:

| September 30, |  |
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  |
Net reserves at beginning of period | $ | 12,848,362 |  |  | $ | 11,620,393 |  |  |
Net provision for losses and loss expenses: |  |  |  |  |
Claims occurring during the current year (1) | 4,260,179 |  |  | 3,598,969 |  |  |
Increase in estimates for claims occurring in prior years (2) (3) | 54,632 |  |  | 1,552 |  |  |
Loss reserve discount accretion | 24,835 |  |  | 23,109 |  |  |
Total | 4,339,646 |  |  | 3,623,630 |  |  |
Net payments for claims: |  |  |  |  |
Current year | 643,908 |  |  | 547,082 |  |  |
Prior years | 2,499,319 |  |  | 2,161,877 |  |  |
Total | 3,143,227 |  |  | 2,708,959 |  |  |
Foreign currency translation | (193,755) |  |  | (53,935) |  |  |
Net reserves at end of period | 13,851,026 |  |  | 12,481,129 |  |  |
Ceded reserves at end of period | 2,689,097 |  |  | 2,438,447 |  |  |
Gross reserves at end of period | $ | 16,540,123 |  |  | $ | 14,919,576 |  |  |

_______________________________________
(1) Claims occurring during the current year are net of loss reserve discounts of $26 million and $16 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively.
(2) The change in estimates for claims occurring in prior years is net of loss reserve discount. On an undiscounted basis, the estimates for claims occurring in prior years increased by $20 million and decreased by $13 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively.
(3) For certain retrospectively rated insurance policies and reinsurance agreements, reserve development is offset by additional or return premiums. Adverse development, net of additional and return premiums, was $37 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2022, and favorable development was $5 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2021, respectively.
The COVID-19 global pandemic has impacted, and may further impact, the Company’s results through its effect on claim frequency and severity. Loss cost trends have been impacted and may be further impacted by COVID-19-related claims in certain lines of business. Losses incurred from COVID-19-related claims have been offset, to a certain extent, by lower claim frequency in certain lines of our businesses; however, as the economy and legal systems have reopened, the benefit of lower claim frequency has continued to abate. Although as populations continue to be vaccinated against the virus and the effects of the pandemic have receded in many jurisdictions, most particularly the United States, the ultimate net impact of COVID-19 on the Company remains uncertain. New variants of the COVID-19 virus continue to create risks with respect to loss costs and the potential for renewed impact of the other effects of COVID-19 associated with economic conditions, inflation, and social distancing and work from home rules.
Most of the COVID-19-related claims reported to the Company to date involve certain short-tailed lines of business, including contingency and event cancellation, business interruption, and film production delay. The Company has also received COVID-19-related claims for longer-tailed casualty lines of business such as workers’ compensation and other liability; however, the estimated incurred loss impact for these reported claims are not material at this time. Given the continuing uncertainty regarding the pandemic's pervasiveness, the future impact that the pandemic may have on claim frequency and severity remains uncertain at this time.
The Company has estimated the potential COVID-19 impact to its contingency and event cancellation, workers’ compensation, and other lines of business under a number of possible scenarios; however, due to COVID-19’s continued evolving impact, there remains a high degree of uncertainty around the Company’s COVID-19 reserves. In addition, should the pandemic continue or worsen as a result of new COVID-19 variants or otherwise, governments in the jurisdictions where we operate may impose restrictions, including lockdowns, as well as renew their efforts to expand policy coverage terms beyond the policy’s intended coverage. Accordingly, losses arising from these actions, and the other factors described above, could exceed the Company’s reserves established for those related policies.
As of September 30, 2022, the Company had recognized losses for COVID-19-related claims activity, net of reinsurance, of approximately $348 million, of which $299 million relates to the Insurance segment and $49 million relates to the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. Such $348 million of COVID-19-related losses included $343 million of reported losses and $5 million of IBNR. For the nine months ended September 30, 2022, the Company recognized current accident year losses for COVID-19-related claims activity, net of reinsurance, of approximately $4 million, of which $2 million relates to the Insurance segment and $2 million relates to the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment.
23

During the nine months ended September 30, 2022, adverse prior year development (net of additional and return premiums) of $37 million included $33 million for the Insurance segment and $4 million for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment.
The adverse development for the Insurance segment primarily related to COVID-19 losses at two businesses. These businesses wrote policies providing coverage for event cancellation and film production delay which were heavily impacted by losses directly caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Most of this COVID-19 related adverse development emerged during the third quarter as a result of settlements of claims at values higher than our expectations. However, the Company believes that as a result of these settlements the remaining level of uncertainty around the ultimate value of its known COVID-19 claims has been significantly reduced.
The adverse development mentioned above includes favorable prior year development for the Insurance segment primarily attributable to the 2020 and 2021 accident years and adverse development on the 2015 through 2019 accident years. The favorable development on the 2020 and 2021 accident years was concentrated in the other liability lines of business, including professional liability, products liability, commercial multi-peril liability and workers’ compensation. The Company experienced lower reported claim frequency in these lines of business during 2020 and 2021 relative to historical averages, and continues to experience lower reported incurred losses relative to our expectations for these accident years as they develop during 2022. These trends began in 2020 and we believe were caused by the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, including for example, lockdowns, reduced driving/traffic and increased work from home. Due to the ongoing uncertainty regarding the ultimate impacts of the pandemic on accident years 2020 and 2021 incurred losses, the Company has been cautious in reacting to these lower trends in setting and updating its loss ratio estimates for these years. As these accident years have continued to mature, the Company has continued to recognize some of the favorable reported experience in its ultimate loss estimates made during 2022.
The adverse development on the 2015 through 2019 accident years was concentrated in the other liability and professional liability, including medical professional, lines of business, as well as commercial auto liability. The development was driven by a larger than expected number of large losses reported. The Company believes social inflation is contributing to an increase in the frequency of large losses for these accident years. Social inflation can include higher settlement demands from plaintiffs, use of tactics such as litigation funding by the plaintiffs’ bar, negative public sentiment towards large businesses and corporations, and erosion of tort reforms, among others.
The overall slight adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment was driven mainly by adverse development in the professional liability and non-proportional reinsurance assumed property and liability lines of business, substantially offset by favorable development in excess workers’ compensation. The adverse development was spread mainly across accident years 2015 through 2021 and was associated primarily with our U.S. assumed reinsurance business and related to accounts insuring construction projects and professional liability exposures. The favorable excess workers’ compensation development was mainly in 2011 and prior accident years, and was driven by a review of the Company’s claim reporting patterns as well as a number of favorable claim settlements relative to expectations.
During the nine months ended September 30, 2021, favorable prior year development (net of additional and return premiums) of $5 million included $8 million of favorable development for the Insurance segment, partially offset by $3 million of adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment.
The overall favorable development for the Insurance segment was primarily attributable to favorable development on workers’ compensation business, partially offset by adverse development on professional liability business. The favorable workers’ compensation development was spread across many prior accident years, including prior to 2010, but was especially significant in accident year 2019. The favorable workers’ compensation development reflects a continuation of the benign loss cost trends experienced during recent years, particularly the favorable claim frequency trends. Our ongoing workers’ compensation claims management efforts, including active medical case management and use of networks and specialty vendors to control medical and pharmaceutical benefit costs, have also added to the favorable workers’ compensation prior year development. The adverse professional liability development was mainly concentrated in accident years 2016 through 2018 and was largely driven by higher than expected large losses being reported in the directors and officers and lawyers professional liability lines of business.
The adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment was mainly driven by non-proportional reinsurance assumed liability business written in the U.K. for accident years 2016 through 2018, partially offset by favorable development on excess workers’ compensation business. The adverse development was driven by a greater than expected number of reported large losses.
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(18) Fair Value of Financial Instruments
The following table presents the carrying amounts and estimated fair values of the Company’s financial instruments:

| September 30, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021
(In thousands) | Carrying Value |  | Fair Value |  | Carrying Value |  | Fair Value
Assets: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed maturity securities | $ | 17,230,936 |  |  | $ | 17,234,486 |  |  | $ | 16,602,673 |  |  | $ | 16,614,118 |
Equity securities | 1,173,589 |  |  | 1,173,589 |  |  | 941,243 |  |  | 941,243 |
Arbitrage trading account | 1,165,016 |  |  | 1,165,016 |  |  | 1,179,606 |  |  | 1,179,606 |
Loans receivable | 112,800 |  |  | 111,524 |  |  | 115,172 |  |  | 116,534 |
Cash and cash equivalents | 1,130,750 |  |  | 1,130,750 |  |  | 1,568,843 |  |  | 1,568,843 |
Due from broker | — |  |  | — |  |  | 20,448 |  |  | 20,448 |
Liabilities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Due to broker | 157,086 |  |  | 157,086 |  |  | — |  |  | — |
Trading account payable to brokers and clearing organizations | 820 |  |  | 820 |  |  | 53,636 |  |  | 53,636 |
Trading account securities sold but not yet purchased | 6 |  |  | 6 |  |  | 1,169 |  |  | 1,169 |
Senior notes and other debt | 1,834,287 |  |  | 1,423,228 |  |  | 2,259,416 |  |  | 2,526,630 |
Subordinated debentures | 1,008,191 |  |  | 807,116 |  |  | 1,007,652 |  |  | 1,095,600 |

The estimated fair values of the Company’s fixed maturity securities, equity securities and arbitrage trading account securities are based on various valuation techniques that rely on fair value measurements as described in Note 16. The fair value of loans receivable are estimated by using current institutional purchaser yield requirements for loans with similar credit characteristics, which is considered a Level 2 input. The fair value of the senior notes and other debt and the subordinated debentures is based on spreads for similar securities, which is considered a Level 2 input.
(19) Premiums and Reinsurance Related Information
The following is a summary of insurance and reinsurance financial information:

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Written premiums: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Direct | $ | 2,775,236 |  |  | $ | 2,490,875 |  |  | $ | 8,075,311 |  |  | $ | 7,063,151 |
Assumed | 306,702 |  |  | 296,623 |  |  | 918,864 |  |  | 870,295 |
Ceded | (504,664) |  |  | (462,360) |  |  | (1,418,012) |  |  | (1,346,089) |
Total net premiums written | $ | 2,577,274 |  |  | $ | 2,325,138 |  |  | $ | 7,576,163 |  |  | $ | 6,587,357 |
Earned premiums: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Direct | $ | 2,617,680 |  |  | $ | 2,276,173 |  |  | $ | 7,533,856 |  |  | $ | 6,430,957 |
Assumed | 318,962 |  |  | 273,808 |  |  | 903,882 |  |  | 792,515 |
Ceded | (494,681) |  |  | (468,963) |  |  | (1,389,533) |  |  | (1,320,874) |
Total net premiums earned | $ | 2,441,961 |  |  | $ | 2,081,018 |  |  | $ | 7,048,205 |  |  | $ | 5,902,598 |
Ceded losses and loss expenses incurred | $ | 347,439 |  |  | $ | 318,283 |  |  | $ | 905,667 |  |  | $ | 872,186 |
Ceded commissions earned | $ | 121,721 |  |  | $ | 113,523 |  |  | $ | 356,157 |  |  | $ | 322,037 |

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The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses for premiums and fees receivable for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 25,218 |  |  | $ | 22,883 |
Change in expected credit losses | 5,360 |  |  | 793 |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 30,578 |  |  | $ | 23,676 |

The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses for premiums and fees receivable for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 30,557 |  |  | $ | 24,808 |
Change in expected credit losses | 21 |  |  | (1,132) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 30,578 |  |  | $ | 23,676 |

The Company reinsures a portion of its insurance exposures in order to reduce its net liability on individual risks and catastrophe losses. The Company also cedes premiums to state assigned risk plans and captive insurance companies. Estimated amounts due from reinsurers are reported net of an allowance for expected credit losses.
The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses associated with due from reinsurers for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 7,713 |  |  | $ | 7,801 |
Change in expected credit losses | 286 |  |  | (524) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 7,999 |  |  | $ | 7,277 |

The following table presents the rollforward of the allowance for expected credit losses associated with due from reinsurers for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Allowance for expected credit losses, beginning of period | $ | 7,744 |  |  | $ | 7,283 |
Change in expected credit losses | 255 |  |  | (6) |
Allowance for expected credit losses, end of period | $ | 7,999 |  |  | $ | 7,277 |

(20) Restricted Stock Units
Pursuant to its stock incentive plan, the Company may issue restricted stock units ("RSUs") to employees of the Company and its subsidiaries. The RSUs generally vest three to five years from the award date and are subject to other vesting and forfeiture provisions contained in the award agreement. RSUs are expensed pro-ratably over the vesting period. RSU expenses were both $34 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021. A summary of RSUs issued in the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021 follows:

($ in thousands) | Units |  | Fair Value
2022 | 1,023,871 |  |  | $ | 67,345 |
2021 | 1,270,679 |  |  | $ | 62,981 |

(21) Litigation and Contingent Liabilities
In the ordinary course of business, the Company is subject to disputes, litigation and arbitration arising from its insurance and reinsurance businesses. These matters are generally related to insurance and reinsurance claims and are considered in the establishment of loss and loss expense reserves. In addition, the Company may also become involved in legal actions which seek extra-contractual damages, punitive damages or penalties, including claims alleging bad faith in handling of
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insurance claims. The Company expects its ultimate liability with respect to such matters will not be material to its financial condition. However, adverse outcomes on such matters are possible, from time to time, and could be material to the Company’s results of operations in any particular financial reporting period.
(22) Leases
Lessees are required to recognize a right-of-use asset and a lease liability for leases with terms of more than 12 months on the balance sheet. All leases disclosed within this footnote are classified as operating leases. Recognized right-of-use asset and lease liability are reported within other assets and other liabilities, respectively, in the consolidated balance sheet. Lease expense is reported in other operating costs and expenses in the consolidated statement of income and accounted for on a straight-line basis over the lease term.
To determine the discount rate used to calculate present value of future minimum lease payments, the Company uses its incremental borrowing rate during the lease commencement period in line with the respective lease duration. In certain cases, the Company has the option to renew the lease. Lease renewal future payments are included in the present value of the future minimum lease payments when the Company determines it is reasonably certain to renew.
The main leases entered into by the Company are for office space used by the Company’s operating units across the world. Additionally, the Company, to a lesser extent, has equipment leases mainly for office equipment. Further information relating to operating lease expense and other operating lease information are as follows:

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Leases: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Lease cost | $ | 11,299 |  |  | $ | 11,741 |  |  | $ | 33,649 |  |  | $ | 34,434 |
Cash paid for amounts included in the measurement of lease liabilities reported in operating cash flows | $ | 11,082 |  |  | $ | 11,212 |  |  | $ | 33,128 |  |  | $ | 34,509 |
Right-of-use assets obtained in exchange for new lease liabilities | $ | 1,527 |  |  | $ | 31,249 |  |  | $ | 21,729 |  |  | $ | 31,098 |

| As of September 30,
($ in thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Right-of-use assets | $ | 163,940 |  | $ | 170,729
Lease liabilities | $ | 199,889 |  | $ | 207,636
Weighted-average remaining lease term | 7.1 years |  | 7.3 years
Weighted-average discount rate | 4.50 | % |  | 4.96 | %

Contractual maturities of the Company’s future minimum lease payments are as follows:

(In thousands) | September 30, 2022 |  |  |
Contractual Maturities: |  |  |  |
2022 | $ | 11,582 |  |  |  |
2023 | 45,398 |  |  |  |
2024 | 40,448 |  |  |  |
2025 | 30,870 |  |  |  |
2026 | 23,904 |  |  |  |
Thereafter | 78,627 |  |  |  |
Total undiscounted future minimum lease payments | 230,829 |  |  |  |
Less: Discount impact | 30,940 |  |  |  |
Total lease liability | $ | 199,889 |  |  |  |

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(23) Business Segments
The Company’s reportable segments include the following two business segments, plus a corporate segment:
•Insurance - predominantly commercial insurance business, including excess and surplus lines, admitted lines and specialty personal lines throughout the United States, as well as insurance business in the United Kingdom, Continental Europe, South America, Canada, Mexico, Scandinavia, Asia and Australia.
•Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - reinsurance business on a facultative and treaty basis, primarily in the United States, the United Kingdom, Continental Europe, Australia, the Asia-Pacific Region and South Africa, as well as operations that solely retain risk on an excess basis.
The accounting policies of the segments are the same as those described in the summary of significant accounting policies. Income tax expense and benefits are calculated based upon the Company's overall effective tax rate.
Summary financial information about the Company's reporting segments is presented in the following tables. Income (loss) before income taxes by segment includes allocated investment income. Identifiable assets by segment are those assets used in or allocated to the operation of each segment.

| Revenues |  |  |  |
(In thousands) | Earned Premiums (1) |  | Investment Income |  | Other |  | Total (2) |  | Pre-Tax Income (Loss) |  | Net Income (Loss) to Common Stockholders
Three months ended September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Insurance | $ | 2,129,014 |  |  | $ | 134,519 |  |  | $ | 8,341 |  |  | $ | 2,271,874 |  |  | $ | 322,312 |  |  | $ | 258,521 |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess | 312,947 |  |  | 55,234 |  |  | — |  |  | 368,181 |  |  | 59,561 |  |  | 46,875 |
Corporate, other and eliminations (3) | — |  |  | 13,063 |  |  | 138,692 |  |  | 151,755 |  |  | (28,198) |  |  | (23,563) |
Net investment losses | — |  |  | — |  |  | (67,410) |  |  | (67,410) |  |  | (67,410) |  |  | (52,954) |
Total | $ | 2,441,961 |  |  | $ | 202,816 |  |  | $ | 79,623 |  |  | $ | 2,724,400 |  |  | $ | 286,265 |  |  | $ | 228,879 |
Three months ended September 30, 2021 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Insurance | $ | 1,819,071 |  |  | $ | 118,770 |  |  | $ | 7,289 |  |  | $ | 1,945,130 |  |  | $ | 314,000 |  |  | $ | 252,333 |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess | 261,947 |  |  | 48,504 |  |  | — |  |  | 310,451 |  |  | 52,742 |  |  | 41,964 |
Corporate, other and eliminations (3) | — |  |  | 12,577 |  |  | 136,624 |  |  | 149,201 |  |  | (53,962) |  |  | (48,235) |
Net investment gains | — |  |  | — |  |  | 19,501 |  |  | 19,501 |  |  | 19,501 |  |  | 15,235 |
Total | $ | 2,081,018 |  |  | $ | 179,851 |  |  | $ | 163,414 |  |  | $ | 2,424,283 |  |  | $ | 332,281 |  |  | $ | 261,297 |
Nine months ended September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Insurance | $ | 6,162,005 |  |  | $ | 386,297 |  |  | $ | 25,354 |  |  | $ | 6,573,656 |  |  | $ | 1,052,185 |  |  | $ | 850,207 |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess | 886,200 |  |  | 139,768 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,025,968 |  |  | 209,366 |  |  | 167,329 |
Corporate, other and eliminations (3) | — |  |  | 21,837 |  |  | 403,937 |  |  | 425,774 |  |  | (147,590) |  |  | (119,530) |
Net investment gains | — |  |  | — |  |  | 127,299 |  |  | 127,299 |  |  | 127,299 |  |  | 100,833 |
Total | $ | 7,048,205 |  |  | $ | 547,902 |  |  | $ | 556,590 |  |  | $ | 8,152,697 |  |  | $ | 1,241,260 |  |  | $ | 998,839 |
Nine months ended September 30, 2021 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Insurance | $ | 5,151,253 |  |  | $ | 340,710 |  |  | $ | 23,780 |  |  | $ | 5,515,743 |  |  | $ | 862,399 |  |  | $ | 681,354 |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess | 751,345 |  |  | 133,092 |  |  | — |  |  | 884,437 |  |  | 196,185 |  |  | 155,770 |
Corporate, other and eliminations (3) | — |  |  | 32,813 |  |  | 365,841 |  |  | 398,654 |  |  | (208,699) |  |  | (172,051) |
Net investment gains | — |  |  | — |  |  | 78,404 |  |  | 78,404 |  |  | 78,404 |  |  | 62,987 |
Total | $ | 5,902,598 |  |  | $ | 506,615 |  |  | $ | 468,025 |  |  | $ | 6,877,238 |  |  | $ | 928,289 |  |  | $ | 728,060 |

_________________
(1) Certain amounts included in earned premiums of each segment are related to inter-segment transactions.
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(2) Revenues for Insurance from foreign operations for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021 were $252 million and $220 million, respectively, and for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021 were $750 million and $638 million, respectively. Revenues for Reinsurance & Monoline Excess from foreign operations for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021 were $117 million and $100 million, respectively, and for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021 were $307 million and $278 million, respectively.
(3) Corporate, other and eliminations represent corporate revenues and expenses that are not allocated to business segments.
Identifiable Assets

(In thousands) | September 30, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021 |
Insurance | $ | 26,267,446 |  |  | $ | 24,403,918 |  |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess | 5,012,394 |  |  | 4,917,985 |  |
Corporate, other and eliminations | 1,796,979 |  |  | 2,725,973 |  |
Consolidated | $ | 33,076,819 |  |  | $ | 32,047,876 |  |

Net premiums earned by major line of business are as follows:

| For the Three Months Ended September 30, |  | For the Nine Months Ended September 30,
(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Insurance: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Other liability | $ | 824,595 |  |  | $ | 691,014 |  |  | $ | 2,363,349 |  |  | $ | 1,946,598 |
Short-tail lines (1) | 407,211 |  |  | 347,835 |  |  | 1,184,191 |  |  | 1,012,465 |
Workers' compensation | 307,323 |  |  | 286,474 |  |  | 892,390 |  |  | 845,394 |
Commercial automobile | 307,754 |  |  | 257,314 |  |  | 891,729 |  |  | 715,519 |
Professional liability | 282,131 |  |  | 236,434 |  |  | 830,346 |  |  | 631,277 |
Total Insurance | 2,129,014 |  |  | 1,819,071 |  |  | 6,162,005 |  |  | 5,151,253 |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Casualty reinsurance | 193,726 |  |  | 164,095 |  |  | 568,507 |  |  | 466,264 |
Monoline excess (2) | 54,675 |  |  | 52,361 |  |  | 161,181 |  |  | 146,481 |
Property reinsurance | 64,546 |  |  | 45,491 |  |  | 156,512 |  |  | 138,600 |
Total Reinsurance & Monoline Excess | 312,947 |  |  | 261,947 |  |  | 886,200 |  |  | 751,345 |
Total | $ | 2,441,961 |  |  | $ | 2,081,018 |  |  | $ | 7,048,205 |  |  | $ | 5,902,598 |

______________
(1) Short-tail lines include commercial multi-peril (non-liability), inland marine, accident and health, fidelity and surety, boiler and machinery and other lines.
(2) Monoline excess includes operations that solely retain risk on an excess basis.
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SAFE HARBOR STATEMENT
This is a “Safe Harbor” Statement under the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Any forward-looking statements contained herein, including statements related to our outlook for the industry and for our performance for the year 2022 and beyond, are based upon the Company’s historical performance and on current plans, estimates and expectations. The inclusion of this forward-looking information should not be regarded as a representation by us or any other person that the future plans, estimates or expectations contemplated by us will be achieved. They are subject to various risks and uncertainties, including but not limited to: the cyclical nature of the property casualty industry; the impact of significant competition, including new entrants to the industry; the long-tail and potentially volatile nature of the insurance and reinsurance business; product demand and pricing; claims development and the process of estimating reserves; investment risks, including those of our portfolio of fixed maturity securities and investments in equity securities, including investments in financial institutions, municipal bonds, mortgage-backed securities, loans receivable, investment funds, including real estate, merger arbitrage, energy related and private equity investments; the effects of emerging claim and coverage issues; the uncertain nature of damage theories and loss amounts, including claims for cybersecurity-related risks; natural and man-made catastrophic losses, including as a result of terrorist activities; the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic; the impact of climate change, which may alter the frequency and increase the severity of catastrophe events; general economic and market activities, including inflation, changing interest rates, and volatility in the credit and capital markets; the impact of the conditions in the financial markets and the global economy, and the potential effect of legislative, regulatory, accounting or other initiatives taken in response, on our results and financial condition; foreign currency and political risks (including those associated with the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union, or "Brexit") relating to our international operations; our ability to attract and retain key personnel and qualified employees; continued availability of capital and financing; the success of our new ventures or acquisitions and the availability of other opportunities; the availability of reinsurance; our retention under the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2019; the ability or willingness of our reinsurers to pay reinsurance recoverables owed to us; other legislative and regulatory developments, including those related to business practices in the insurance industry; credit risk related to our policyholders, independent agents and brokers; changes in the ratings assigned to us or our insurance company subsidiaries by rating agencies; the availability of dividends from our insurance company subsidiaries; potential difficulties with technology and/or cyber security issues; the effectiveness of our controls to ensure compliance with guidelines, policies and legal and regulatory standards; and other risks detailed from time to time in the Company’s filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission.
These risks and uncertainties could cause our actual results for the year 2022 and beyond to differ materially from those expressed in any forward-looking statement we make. Any projections of growth in our revenues would not necessarily result in commensurate levels of earnings. Our future financial performance is dependent upon factors discussed in our Annual Report on Form 10-K, elsewhere in this Form 10-Q and our other SEC filings. Forward-looking statements speak only as of the date on which they are made. Except to the extent required by applicable laws, the Company does not undertake any obligation to update or revise any forward-looking statement, whether as a result of new information, future developments or otherwise.
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Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations
Overview
W. R. Berkley Corporation is an insurance holding company that is among the largest commercial lines writers in the United States and operates worldwide in two segments of the property and casualty business: Insurance and Reinsurance & Monoline Excess. Our decentralized structure provides us with the flexibility to respond quickly and efficiently to local or specific market conditions and to pursue specialty business niches. It also allows us to be closer to our customers in order to better understand their individual needs and risk characteristics. While providing our business units with certain operating autonomy, our structure allows us to capitalize on the benefits of economies of scale through centralized capital, investment, reinsurance, enterprise risk management, and actuarial, financial and corporate legal staff support. The Company’s primary sources of revenues and earnings are its insurance operations and its investments.
An important part of our strategy is to form new operating units to capitalize on various business opportunities. Over the years, the Company has formed numerous operating units that are focused on important parts of the economy in the U.S., including healthcare, cyber security, energy and agriculture, and on growing international markets, including the Asia-Pacific region, South America and Mexico.
The profitability of the Company’s insurance business is affected primarily by the adequacy of premium rates. The ultimate adequacy of premium rates is not known with certainty at the time an insurance policy is issued because premiums are determined before claims are reported. The ultimate adequacy of premium rates is affected mainly by the severity and frequency of claims, which are influenced by many factors, including natural and other disasters, regulatory measures and court decisions that define and change the extent of coverage and the effects of economic inflation on the amount of compensation for injuries or losses. General insurance prices are also influenced by available insurance capacity, i.e., the level of capital employed in the industry, and the industry’s willingness to deploy that capital.
The Company’s profitability is also affected by its investment income and investment gains. The Company’s invested assets are invested principally in fixed maturity securities. The return on fixed maturity securities is affected primarily by general interest rates, as well as the credit quality and duration of the securities.
The Company also invests in equity securities, merger arbitrage securities, investment funds, private equity, loans and real estate related assets. The Company's investments in investment funds and its other alternative investments have experienced, and the Company expects to continue to experience, greater fluctuations in investment income. The Company's share of the earnings or losses from investment funds is generally reported on a one-quarter lag in order to facilitate the timely completion of the Company's consolidated financial statements.
On February 25, 2022, the Company announced that its Board of Directors approved a 3-for-2 common stock split which was paid in the form of a stock dividend to holders of record as of March 9, 2022. The additional shares were issued on March 23, 2022. Shares outstanding and per share amounts in this Form 10-Q reflect such 3-for-2 common stock split.
On March 7, 2022, the Company sold a real estate investment consisting of an office building located in London for £718 million. The Company realized a pretax gain of $317 million in the first quarter of 2022, before transaction expenses and the impact of foreign currency, including the reversal of the currency translation adjustment. The gain was $251 million after such adjustments.
The COVID-19 pandemic, including the related impact on the U.S. and global economies, continued to adversely affect our results of operations. For the nine months ended September 30, 2022, the Company recorded approximately $4 million for current accident year COVID-19-related losses, net of reinsurance. At the same time, COVID-19 has led to reduced loss frequency in certain lines of business (which has begun to return to pre-pandemic levels as many economies and legal systems have reopened as a result of higher levels of vaccination). The ultimate impact of COVID-19 on the economy and the Company’s results of operations, financial position and liquidity is not within the Company’s control and remains unclear due to, among other factors, uncertainty in connection with its claims, reserves and reinsurance recoverables.
Critical Accounting Estimates
The following presents a discussion of accounting policies and estimates relating to reserves for losses and loss expenses, assumed premiums and allowance for expected credit losses on investments. Management believes these policies and estimates are the most critical to its operations and require the most difficult, subjective and complex judgments.
Reserves for Losses and Loss Expenses. To recognize liabilities for unpaid losses, either known or unknown, insurers establish reserves, which is a balance sheet account representing estimates of future amounts needed to pay claims and
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related expenses with respect to insured events which have occurred. Estimates and assumptions relating to reserves for losses and loss expenses are based on complex and subjective judgments, often including the interplay of specific uncertainties with related accounting and actuarial measurements. Such estimates are also susceptible to change as significant periods of time may elapse between the occurrence of an insured loss, the report of the loss to the insurer, the ultimate determination of the cost of the loss and the insurer’s payment of that loss.
In general, when a claim is reported, claims personnel establish a “case reserve” for the estimated amount of the ultimate payment based upon known information about the claim at that time. The estimate represents an informed judgment based on general reserving practices and reflects the experience and knowledge of the claims personnel regarding the nature and value of the specific type of claim. Reserves are also established on an aggregate basis to provide for losses incurred but not reported (“IBNR”) to the insurer, potential inadequacy of case reserves and the estimated expenses of settling claims, including legal and other fees and general expenses of administrating the claims adjustment process. Reserves are established based upon the then current legal interpretation of coverage provided.
In examining reserve adequacy, several factors are considered in estimating the ultimate economic value of losses. These factors include, among other things, historical data, legal developments, changes in social attitudes and economic conditions, including the effects of inflation. The actuarial process relies on the basic assumption that past experience, adjusted judgmentally for the effects of current developments and anticipated trends, is an appropriate basis for predicting future outcomes. Reserve amounts are based on management’s informed estimates and judgments using currently available data. As additional experience and other data become available and are reviewed, these estimates and judgments may be revised. This may result in reserve increases or decreases that would be reflected in our results in periods in which such estimates and assumptions are changed.
Reserves do not represent an exact calculation of liability. Rather, reserves represent an estimate of what management expects the ultimate settlement and claim administration will cost. While the methods for establishing reserves are well tested over time, some of the major assumptions about anticipated loss emergence patterns are subject to uncertainty. These estimates, which generally involve actuarial projections, are based on management’s assessment of facts and circumstances then known, as well as estimates of trends in claims severity and frequency, judicial theories of liability and other factors, including the actions of third parties which are beyond the Company’s control. These variables are affected by external and internal events, such as inflation and economic volatility, judicial and litigation trends, reinsurance coverage, legislative changes and claim handling and reserving practices, which make it more difficult to accurately predict claim costs. The inherent uncertainties of estimating reserves are greater for certain types of liabilities where long periods of time elapse before a definitive determination of liability is made. Because setting reserves is inherently uncertain, the Company cannot provide assurance that its current reserves will prove adequate in light of subsequent events.
Loss reserves included in the Company’s financial statements represent management’s best estimates based upon an actuarially derived point estimate and other considerations. The Company uses a variety of actuarial techniques and methods to derive an actuarial point estimate for each operating unit. These methods include paid loss development, incurred loss development, paid and incurred Bornhuetter-Ferguson methods and frequency and severity methods. In circumstances where one actuarial method is considered more credible than the others, that method is used to set the point estimate. For example, the paid loss and incurred loss development methods rely on historical paid and incurred loss data. For new lines of business, where there is insufficient history of paid and incurred claims data, or in circumstances where there have been significant changes in claim practices, the paid and incurred loss development methods would be less credible than other actuarial methods. The actuarial point estimate may also be based on a judgmental weighting of estimates produced from each of the methods considered. Industry loss experience is used to supplement the Company’s own data in selecting “tail factors” and in areas where the Company’s own data is limited. The actuarial data is analyzed by line of business, coverage and accident or policy year, as appropriate, for each operating unit.
The establishment of the actuarially derived loss reserve point estimate also includes consideration of qualitative factors that may affect the ultimate losses. These qualitative considerations include, among others, the impact of re-underwriting initiatives, changes in the mix of business, changes in distribution sources and changes in policy terms and conditions. Examples of changes in terms and conditions that can have a significant impact on reserve levels are the use of aggregate policy limits, the expansion of coverage exclusions, whether or not defense costs are within policy limits, and changes in deductibles and attachment points.
The key assumptions used to arrive at the best estimate of loss reserves are the expected loss ratios, rate of loss cost inflation, and reported and paid loss emergence patterns. Expected loss ratios represent management’s expectation of losses at the time the business is written, before any actual claims experience has emerged. This expectation is a significant determinant of the estimate of loss reserves for recently written business where there is little paid or incurred loss data to consider. Expected loss ratios are generally derived from historical loss ratios adjusted for the impact of rate changes, loss cost trends and known
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changes in the type of risks underwritten. Expected loss ratios are estimated for each key line of business within each operating unit. Expected loss cost inflation is particularly important for the long-tail lines, such as excess casualty, and claims with a high medical component, such as workers’ compensation. Reported and paid loss emergence patterns are used to project current reported or paid loss amounts to their ultimate settlement value. Loss development factors are based on the historical emergence patterns of paid and incurred losses, and are derived from the Company’s own experience and industry data. The paid loss emergence pattern is also significant to excess and assumed workers’ compensation reserves because those reserves are discounted to their estimated present value based upon such estimated payout patterns. Management believes the estimates and assumptions it makes in the reserving process provide the best estimate of the ultimate cost of settling claims and related expenses with respect to insured events which have occurred; however, different assumptions and variables could lead to significantly different reserve estimates.
Loss frequency and severity are measures of loss activity that are considered in determining the key assumptions described in our discussion of loss and loss expense reserves, including expected loss ratios, rate of loss cost inflation and reported and paid loss emergence patterns. Loss frequency is a measure of the number of claims per unit of insured exposure, and loss severity is a measure of the average size of claims. Factors affecting loss frequency include the effectiveness of loss controls and safety programs and changes in economic activity or weather patterns. Factors affecting loss severity include changes in policy limits, retentions, rate of inflation and judicial interpretations.
Another factor affecting estimates of loss frequency and severity is the loss reporting lag, which is the period of time between the occurrence of a loss and the date the loss is reported to the Company. The length of the loss reporting lag affects our ability to accurately predict loss frequency (loss frequencies are more predictable for lines with short reporting lags) as well as the amount of reserves needed for incurred but not reported losses (less IBNR is required for lines with short reporting lags). As a result, loss reserves for lines with short reporting lags are likely to have less variation from initial loss estimates. For lines with short reporting lags, which include commercial automobile, primary workers’ compensation, other liability (claims-made) and property business, the key assumption is the loss emergence pattern used to project ultimate loss estimates from known losses paid or reported to date. For lines of business with long reporting lags, which include other liability (occurrence), products liability, excess workers’ compensation and liability reinsurance, the key assumption is the expected loss ratio since there is often little paid or incurred loss data to consider. Historically, the Company has experienced less variation from its initial loss estimates for lines of businesses with short reporting lags than for lines of business with long reporting lags.
The key assumptions used in calculating the most recent estimate of the loss reserves are reviewed each quarter and adjusted, to the extent necessary, to reflect the latest reported loss data, current trends and other factors observed. If the actual level of loss frequency and severity are higher or lower than expected, the ultimate losses will be different than management’s estimate. The following table reflects the impact of changes (which could be favorable or unfavorable) in frequency and severity, relative to our assumptions, on our loss estimate for claims occurring in 2021:

(In thousands) | Frequency (+/-)
Severity (+/-) | 1% |  | 5% |  | 10%
1% | $ | 98,916 |  |  | $ | 297,732 |  |  | $ | 546,252 |
5% | 297,732 |  |  | 504,422 |  |  | 762,785 |
10% | 546,252 |  |  | 762,785 |  |  | 1,033,450 |

Our net reserves for losses and loss expenses of approximately $13.9 billion as of September 30, 2022 relate to multiple accident years. Therefore, the impact of changes in frequency or severity for more than one accident year could be higher or lower than the amounts reflected above. The impact of such changes would likely be manifested gradually over the course of many years, as the magnitude of the changes became evident.
Approximately $2.9 billion, or 21%, of the Company’s net loss reserves as of September 30, 2022 relate to the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. There is a higher degree of uncertainty and greater variability regarding estimates of excess workers' compensation and assumed reinsurance loss reserves. In the case of excess workers’ compensation, our policies generally attach at $1 million or higher. The claims which reach our layer therefore tend to involve the most serious injuries and many remain open for the lifetime of the claimant, which extends the claim settlement tail. These claims also occur less frequently but tend to be larger than primary claims, which increases claim variability. In the case of assumed reinsurance our loss reserve estimates are based, in part, upon information received from ceding companies. If information received from ceding companies is not timely or correct, the Company’s estimate of ultimate losses may not be accurate. Furthermore, due to delayed reporting of claim information by ceding companies, the claim settlement tail for assumed reinsurance is also extended. Management considers the impact of delayed reporting and the extended tail in its selection of loss development factors for these lines of business.
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Information received from ceding companies is used to set initial expected loss ratios, to establish case reserves and to estimate reserves for incurred but not reported losses on assumed reinsurance business. This information, which is generally provided through reinsurance intermediaries, is gathered through the underwriting process and from periodic claim reports and other correspondence with ceding companies. The Company performs underwriting and claim audits of selected ceding companies to determine the accuracy and completeness of information provided to the Company. The information received from the ceding companies is supplemented by the Company’s own loss development experience with similar lines of business as well as industry loss trends and loss development benchmarks.
Following is a summary of the Company’s reserves for losses and loss expenses by business segment:

(In thousands) | September 30, 2022 |  | December 31, 2021
Insurance | $ | 10,923,223 |  |  | $ | 10,060,420 |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess | 2,927,803 |  |  | 2,787,942 |
Net reserves for losses and loss expenses | 13,851,026 |  |  | 12,848,362 |
Ceded reserves for losses and loss expenses | 2,689,097 |  |  | 2,542,526 |
Gross reserves for losses and loss expenses | $ | 16,540,123 |  |  | $ | 15,390,888 |

Following is a summary of the Company’s net reserves for losses and loss expenses by major line of business:

(In thousands) | Reported Case Reserves |  | Incurred But Not Reported |  | Total
September 30, 2022 |  |  |  |  |
Other liability | $ | 1,792,989 |  |  | $ | 3,690,554 |  |  | $ | 5,483,543 |
Workers’ compensation (1) | 1,024,114 |  |  | 899,221 |  |  | 1,923,335 |
Professional liability | 487,217 |  |  | 1,192,190 |  |  | 1,679,407 |
Commercial automobile | 599,982 |  |  | 486,636 |  |  | 1,086,618 |
Short-tail lines (2) | 351,916 |  |  | 398,404 |  |  | 750,320 |
Total Insurance | 4,256,218 |  |  | 6,667,005 |  |  | 10,923,223 |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess (1) (3) | 1,513,107 |  |  | 1,414,696 |  |  | 2,927,803 |
Total | $ | 5,769,325 |  |  | $ | 8,081,701 |  |  | $ | 13,851,026 |
December 31, 2021 |  |  |  |  |
Other liability | $ | 1,724,907 |  |  | $ | 3,319,665 |  |  | $ | 5,044,572 |
Workers’ compensation (1) | 1,016,014 |  |  | 903,448 |  |  | 1,919,462 |
Professional liability | 468,680 |  |  | 1,019,344 |  |  | 1,488,024 |
Commercial automobile | 504,821 |  |  | 424,382 |  |  | 929,203 |
Short-tail lines (2) | 322,917 |  |  | 356,242 |  |  | 679,159 |
Total Insurance | 4,037,339 |  |  | 6,023,081 |  |  | 10,060,420 |
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess (1) (3) | 1,475,623 |  |  | 1,312,319 |  |  | 2,787,942 |
Total | $ | 5,512,962 |  |  | $ | 7,335,400 |  |  | $ | 12,848,362 |

___________
(1) Reserves for workers’ compensation and Reinsurance & Monoline Excess are net of an aggregate net discount of $419 million and $452 million as of September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively.
(2) Short-tail lines include commercial multi-peril (non-liability), inland marine, accident and health, fidelity and surety, boiler and machinery and other lines.
(3) Reinsurance & Monoline Excess includes property and casualty reinsurance, as well as operations that solely retain risk on an excess basis.
The Company evaluates reserves for losses and loss adjustment expenses on a quarterly basis. Changes in estimates of prior year losses are reported when such changes are made. The changes in prior year loss reserve estimates are generally the result of ongoing analysis of recent loss development trends. Original estimates are increased or decreased as additional information becomes known regarding individual claims and aggregate claim trends.
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Certain of the Company's insurance and reinsurance contracts are retrospectively rated, whereby the Company collects more or less premiums based on the level of loss activity. For those contracts, changes in loss and loss adjustment expenses for prior years may be fully or partially offset by additional or return premiums.
Net prior year development (i.e., the sum of prior year reserve changes and prior year earned premiums changes) for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021 are as follows:

(In thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  |
Net increase in prior year loss reserves | $ | (54,632) |  |  | $ | (1,552) |  |  |
Increase in prior year earned premiums | 17,953 |  |  | 6,918 |  |  |
Net (adverse) favorable prior year development | $ | (36,679) |  |  | $ | 5,366 |  |  |

The COVID-19 global pandemic has impacted, and may further impact, the Company’s results through its effect on claim frequency and severity. Loss cost trends have been impacted and may be further impacted by COVID-19-related claims in certain lines of business. Losses incurred from COVID-19-related claims have been offset, to a certain extent, by lower claim frequency in certain lines of our businesses; however, as the economy and legal systems have reopened, the benefit of lower claim frequency has begun to abate. Although as populations continue to be vaccinated against the virus and the effects of the pandemic have receded in many jurisdictions, most particularly the United States, the ultimate net impact of COVID-19 on the Company remains uncertain. New variants of the COVID-19 virus continue to create risks with respect to loss costs and the potential for renewed impact of the other effects of COVID-19 associated with economic conditions, inflation, and social distancing and work from home rules.
Most of the COVID-19-related claims reported to the Company to date involve certain short-tailed lines of business, including contingency and event cancellation, business interruption, and film production delay. The Company has also received COVID-19-related claims for longer-tailed casualty lines of business such as workers’ compensation and other liability; however, the estimated incurred loss impact for these reported claims are not material at this time. Given the continuing uncertainty regarding the pandemic's pervasiveness, the future impact that the pandemic may have on claim frequency and severity remains uncertain at this time.
The Company has estimated the potential COVID-19 impact to its contingency and event cancellation, workers’ compensation, and other lines of business under a number of possible scenarios; however, due to COVID-19’s continued evolving impact, there remains a high degree of uncertainty around the Company’s COVID-19 reserves. In addition, should the pandemic continue or worsen as a result of new COVID-19 variants or otherwise, governments in the jurisdictions where we operate may impose restrictions, including lockdowns, as well as renew their efforts to expand policy coverage terms beyond the policy’s intended coverage. Accordingly, losses arising from these actions, and the other factors described above, could exceed the Company’s reserves established for those related policies.
As of September 30, 2022, the Company had recognized losses for COVID-19-related claims activity, net of reinsurance, of approximately $348 million, of which $299 million relates to the Insurance segment and $49 million relates to the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. Such $348 million of COVID-19-related losses included $343 million of reported losses and $5 million of IBNR. For the nine months ended September 30, 2022, the Company recognized current accident year losses for COVID-19-related claims activity, net of reinsurance, of approximately $4 million, of which $2 million relates to the Insurance segment and $2 million relates to the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment.
During the nine months ended September 30, 2022, adverse prior year development (net of additional and return premiums) of $37 million included $33 million for the Insurance segment and $4 million for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment.
The adverse development for the Insurance segment primarily related to COVID-19 losses at two businesses. These businesses wrote policies providing coverage for event cancellation and film production delay which were heavily impacted by losses directly caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Most of this COVID-19 related adverse development emerged during the third quarter as a result of settlements of claims at values higher than our expectations. However, the Company believes that as a result of these settlements the remaining level of uncertainty around the ultimate value of its known COVID-19 claims has been significantly reduced.
The adverse development mentioned above includes favorable prior year development for the Insurance segment primarily attributable to the 2020 and 2021 accident years and adverse development on the 2015 through 2019 accident years. The favorable development on the 2020 and 2021 accident years was concentrated in the other liability lines of business, including professional liability, products liability, commercial multi-peril liability and workers’ compensation. The Company experienced lower reported claim frequency in these lines of business during 2020 and 2021 relative to historical averages, and continues to experience lower reported incurred losses relative to our expectations for these accident years as they develop during 2022. These trends began in 2020 and we believe were caused by the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic,
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including for example, lockdowns, reduced driving/traffic and increased work from home. Due to the ongoing uncertainty regarding the ultimate impacts of the pandemic on accident years 2020 and 2021 incurred losses, the Company has been cautious in reacting to these lower trends in setting and updating its loss ratio estimates for these years. As these accident years have continued to mature, the Company has continued to recognize some of the favorable reported experience in its ultimate loss estimates made during 2022.
The adverse development on the 2015 through 2019 accident years was concentrated in the other liability and professional liability, including medical professional, lines of business, as well as commercial auto liability. The development was driven by a larger than expected number of large losses reported. The Company believes social inflation is contributing to an increase in the frequency of large losses for these accident years. Social inflation can include higher settlement demands from plaintiffs, use of tactics such as litigation funding by the plaintiffs’ bar, negative public sentiment towards large businesses and corporations, and erosion of tort reforms, among others.
The overall slight adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment was driven mainly by adverse development in the professional liability and non-proportional reinsurance assumed property and liability lines of business, substantially offset by favorable development in excess workers’ compensation. The adverse development was spread mainly across accident years 2015 through 2021 and was associated primarily with our U.S. assumed reinsurance business and related to accounts insuring construction projects and professional liability exposures. The favorable excess workers’ compensation development was mainly in 2011 and prior accident years, and was driven by a review of the Company’s claim reporting patterns as well as a number of favorable claim settlements relative to expectations.
During the nine months ended September 30, 2021, favorable prior year development (net of additional and return premiums) of $5 million included $8 million of favorable development for the Insurance segment, partially offset by $3 million of adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment.
The overall favorable development for the Insurance segment was primarily attributable to favorable development on workers’ compensation business, partially offset by adverse development on professional liability business. The favorable workers’ compensation development was spread across many prior accident years, including prior to 2010, but was especially significant in accident year 2019. The favorable workers’ compensation development reflects a continuation of the benign loss cost trends experienced during recent years, particularly the favorable claim frequency trends. Our ongoing workers’ compensation claims management efforts, including active medical case management and use of networks and specialty vendors to control medical and pharmaceutical benefit costs, have also added to the favorable workers’ compensation prior year development. The adverse professional liability development was mainly concentrated in accident years 2016 through 2018 and was largely driven by higher than expected large losses being reported in the directors and officers and lawyers professional liability lines of business.
The adverse development for the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment was mainly driven by non-proportional reinsurance assumed liability business written in the U.K. for accident years 2016 through 2018, partially offset by favorable development on excess workers’ compensation business. The adverse development was driven by a greater than expected number of reported large losses.
Reserve Discount. The Company discounts its liabilities for certain workers’ compensation reserves. The amount of workers’ compensation reserves that were discounted was $1,276 million and $1,387 million at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively. The aggregate net discount for those reserves, after reflecting the effects of ceded reinsurance, was $419 million and $452 million at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively. At September 30, 2022, discount rates by year ranged from 0.7% to 6.5%, with a weighted average discount rate of 3.4%.
Substantially all of the workers’ compensation discount (97% of total discounted reserves at September 30, 2022) relates to excess workers’ compensation reserves. In order to properly match loss expenses with income earned on investment securities supporting the liabilities, reserves for excess workers’ compensation business are discounted using risk-free discount rates determined by reference to the U.S. Treasury yield curve. These rates are determined annually based on the weighted average rate for the period. Once established, no adjustments are made to the discount rate for that period, and any increases or decreases in loss reserves in subsequent years are discounted at the same rate, without regard to when any such adjustments are recognized. The expected loss and loss expense payout patterns subject to discounting are derived from the Company’s loss payout experience.
The Company also discounts reserves for certain other long-duration workers’ compensation reserves (representing approximately 3% of total discounted reserves at September 30, 2022), including reserves for quota share reinsurance and reserves related to losses regarding occupational lung disease. These reserves are discounted at statutory rates permitted by the Department of Insurance of the State of Delaware.
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Assumed Reinsurance Premiums. The Company estimates the amount of assumed reinsurance premiums that it will receive under treaty reinsurance agreements at the inception of the contracts. These premium estimates are revised as the actual amount of assumed premiums is reported to the Company by the ceding companies. As estimates of assumed premiums are made or revised, the related amount of earned premiums, commissions and incurred losses associated with those premiums are recorded. Estimated assumed premiums receivable were approximately $60 million at both September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021. The assumed premium estimates are based upon terms set forth in reinsurance agreements, information received from ceding companies during the underwriting and negotiation of agreements, reports received from ceding companies and discussions and correspondence with reinsurance intermediaries. The Company also considers its own view of market conditions, economic trends and experience with similar lines of business. These premium estimates represent management’s best estimate of the ultimate amount of premiums to be received under its assumed reinsurance agreements.
Allowance for Expected Credit Losses on Investments.
Fixed Maturity Securities – For fixed maturity securities in an unrealized loss position where the Company intends to sell, or it is more likely than not that it will be required to sell the security before recovery in value, the amortized cost basis is written down to fair value through net investment gains (losses). For fixed maturity securities in an unrealized loss position where the Company does not intend to sell, or it is more likely than not that it will not be required to sell the security before recovery in value, the Company evaluates whether the decline in fair value has resulted from credit losses or all other factors (non-credit factors). In making this assessment, the Company considers the extent to which fair value is less than amortized cost, changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency, and adverse conditions specifically related to the security, among other factors. If this assessment indicates that a credit loss exists, the present value of cash flows expected to be collected from the security are compared to the amortized cost basis of the security. If the present value of cash flows expected to be collected is less than the amortized cost basis, an allowance for expected credit losses is recorded for the credit loss through net investment gains (losses), limited by the amount that the fair value is less than the amortized cost basis. The allowance is adjusted for any change in expected credit losses and subsequent recoveries through net investment gains (losses). The impairment related to non-credit factors is recognized in other comprehensive income (loss).
The Company’s credit assessment of allowance for expected credit losses uses a third party model for available for sale and held to maturity securities, as well as loans receivable. The allowance for expected credit losses is generally based on the performance of the underlying collateral under various economic and default scenarios that involve subjective judgments and estimates by management. Modeling these securities involves various factors, such as projected default rates, the nature and realizable value of the collateral, if any, the ability of the issuer to make scheduled payments, historical performance and other relevant economic and performance factors. A discounted cash flow analysis is used to ascertain the amount of the allowance for expected credit losses, if any. In general, the model reverts to the rating-level long-term average marginal default rates based on 10 years of historical data, beyond the forecast period. For other inputs, the model in most cases reverts to the baseline long-term assumptions linearly over 5 years beyond the forecast period. The long-term assumptions are based on the historical averages.
The Company classifies its fixed maturity securities by credit rating, primarily based on ratings assigned by credit rating agencies. For purposes of classifying securities with different ratings, the Company uses the average of the credit ratings assigned, unless in limited situations the Company’s own analysis indicates an internal rating is more appropriate. Securities that are not rated by a rating agency are evaluated and classified by the Company on a case-by-case basis.
A summary of the Company’s non-investment grade fixed maturity securities that were in an unrealized loss position at September 30, 2022 is presented in the table below:

($ in thousands) | Number of Securities |  | Aggregate Fair Value |  | Gross Unrealized Loss
Foreign government | 38 |  |  | $ | 116,869 |  |  | $ | 58,770 |
Corporate | 12 |  |  | 46,657 |  |  | 6,277 |
State and municipal | 1 |  |  | 11,582 |  |  | 3,421 |
Mortgage-backed | 11 |  |  | 3,398 |  |  | 229 |
Asset-backed | 2 |  |  | 38 |  |  | 20 |
Total | 64 |  |  | $ | 178,544 |  |  | $ | 68,717 |

As of September 30, 2022, the Company has recorded an allowance for expected credit losses on fixed maturity securities of $35 million. The Company has evaluated the remaining fixed maturity securities in an unrealized loss position and believes the unrealized losses are due primarily to temporary market and sector-related factors rather than to issuer-specific factors. None of these securities are delinquent or in default under financial covenants. Based on its assessment of these issuers, the Company expects them to continue to meet their contractual payment obligations as they become due.
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Loans Receivable – For loans receivable, the Company estimates an allowance for expected credit losses based on relevant information about past events, including historical loss experience, current conditions and forecasts that affect the expected collectability of the amortized cost of the financial asset. The allowance for expected credit losses is presented as a reduction to amortized cost of the financial asset in the consolidated balance sheet and changes to the estimate for expected credit losses are recognized through net investment gains (losses). Loans receivable are reported net of an allowance for expected credit losses of $2 million as of September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021.
Fair Value Measurements. The Company’s fixed maturity available for sale securities, equity securities, and its arbitrage trading account securities are carried at fair value. Fair value is defined as “the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.” The Company utilizes a fair value hierarchy that prioritizes the inputs to valuation techniques used to measure fair value into three broad levels. Level 1 inputs are quoted prices (unadjusted) in active markets for identical assets or liabilities that the reporting entity has the ability to access at the measurement date. Level 2 inputs are inputs other than quoted prices included within Level 1 that are observable for similar assets in active markets. Level 3 inputs are unobservable inputs for the asset or liability. Unobservable inputs may only be used to measure fair value to the extent that observable inputs are not available. The fair value of the vast majority of the Company’s portfolio is based on observable data (other than quoted prices) and, accordingly, is classified as Level 2.
In classifying particular financial securities in the fair value hierarchy, the Company uses its judgment to determine whether the market for a security is active and whether significant pricing inputs are observable. The Company determines the existence of an active market by assessing whether transactions occur with sufficient frequency and volume to provide reliable pricing information. The Company determines whether inputs are observable based on the use of such information by pricing services and external investment managers, the uninterrupted availability of such inputs, the need to make significant adjustments to such inputs and the volatility of such inputs over time. If the market for a security is determined to be inactive or if significant inputs used to price a security are determined to be unobservable, the security is categorized in Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy.
Because many fixed maturity securities do not trade on a daily basis, the Company utilizes pricing models and processes which may include benchmark curves, benchmarking of like securities, sector groupings and matrix pricing. Market inputs used to evaluate securities include benchmark yields, reported trades, broker/dealer quotes, issuer spreads, two-sided markets, benchmark securities, bids, offers and reference data. Quoted prices are often unavailable for recently issued securities that are infrequently traded or securities that are only traded in private transactions. For publicly traded securities for which quoted prices are unavailable, the Company determines fair value based on independent broker quotations and other observable market data. For securities traded only in private negotiations, the Company determines fair value based primarily on the cost of such securities, which is adjusted to reflect prices of recent placements of securities of the same issuer, financial data, projections and business developments of the issuer and other relevant information.
The following is a summary of pricing sources for the Company's fixed maturity securities available for sale as of September 30, 2022:

($ in thousands) | Carrying Value |  | Percent of Total
Pricing source: |  |  |
Independent pricing services | $ | 16,515,169 |  |  | 96.2 | %
Syndicate manager | 56,305 |  |  | 0.3 |
Directly by the Company based on: |  |  |
Observable data | 608,628 |  |  | 3.5 |
Total | $ | 17,180,102 |  |  | 100.0 | %

Independent pricing services – Substantially all of the Company’s fixed maturity securities available for sale were priced by independent pricing services (generally one U.S. pricing service plus additional pricing services with respect to a limited number of foreign securities held by the Company). The prices provided by the independent pricing services are generally based on observable market data in active markets (e.g., broker quotes and prices observed for comparable securities). The determination of whether markets are active or inactive is based upon the volume and level of activity for a particular asset class. The Company reviews the prices provided by pricing services for reasonableness based upon current trading levels for similar securities. If the prices appear unusual to the Company, they are re-examined and the value is either confirmed or revised. In addition, the Company periodically performs independent price tests of a sample of securities to ensure proper valuation and to verify our understanding of how securities are priced. As of September 30, 2022, the Company did not make
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any adjustments to the prices provided by the pricing services. Based upon the Company’s review of the methodologies used by the independent pricing services, these securities were classified as Level 2.
Syndicate manager – The Company has a 15% participation in a Lloyd’s syndicate, and the Company’s share of the securities owned by the syndicate is priced by the syndicate’s manager. The majority of the securities are liquid, short duration fixed maturity securities. The Company reviews the syndicate manager’s pricing methodology and audited financial statements and holds discussions with the syndicate manager as necessary to confirm its understanding and agreement with security prices. Based upon the Company’s review of the methodologies used by the syndicate manager, these securities were classified as Level 2.
Observable data – If independent pricing is not available, the Company prices the securities directly. Prices are based on observable market data where available, including current trading levels for similar securities and non-binding quotations from brokers. The Company generally requests two or more quotes. If more than one quote is received, the Company sets a price within the range of quotes received based on its assessment of the credibility of the quote and its own evaluation of the security. The Company generally does not adjust quotes obtained from brokers. Since these securities were priced based on observable data, they were classified as Level 2.
Cash flow model – If the above methodologies are not available, the Company prices securities using a discounted cash flow model based upon assumptions as to prevailing credit spreads, interest rates and interest rate volatility, time to maturity and subordination levels. Discount rates are adjusted to reflect illiquidity where appropriate. These securities were classified as Level 3.
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Results of Operations for the Nine Months Ended September 30, 2022 and 2021
Business Segment Results
Following is a summary of gross and net premiums written, net premiums earned, loss ratios (losses and loss expenses incurred expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned), expense ratios (underwriting expenses expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned) and GAAP combined ratios (sum of loss ratio and expense ratio) for each of our business segments for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021. The GAAP combined ratio represents a measure of underwriting profitability, excluding investment income. A GAAP combined ratio in excess of 100 indicates an underwriting loss; a number below 100 indicates an underwriting profit.

($ in thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Insurance: |  |  |
Gross premiums written | $ | 7,976,288 |  |  | $ | 7,008,617 |
Net premiums written | 6,637,024 |  |  | 5,741,229 |
Net premiums earned | 6,162,005 |  |  | 5,151,253 |
Loss ratio | 61.3 | % |  | 61.4 | %
Expense ratio | 27.9 | % |  | 28.5 | %
GAAP combined ratio | 89.2 | % |  | 89.9 | %
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess: |  |  |
Gross premiums written | $ | 1,017,887 |  |  | $ | 924,829 |
Net premiums written | 939,139 |  |  | 846,128 |
Net premiums earned | 886,200 |  |  | 751,345 |
Loss ratio | 63.7 | % |  | 61.5 | %
Expense ratio | 28.4 | % |  | 30.1 | %
GAAP combined ratio | 92.1 | % |  | 91.6 | %
Consolidated: |  |  |
Gross premiums written | $ | 8,994,175 |  |  | $ | 7,933,446 |
Net premiums written | 7,576,163 |  |  | 6,587,357 |
Net premiums earned | 7,048,205 |  |  | 5,902,598 |
Loss ratio | 61.6 | % |  | 61.4 | %
Expense ratio | 28.0 | % |  | 28.7 | %
GAAP combined ratio | 89.6 | % |  | 90.1 | %

Net Income to Common Stockholders. The following table presents the Company’s net income to common stockholders and net income per diluted share for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

(In thousands, except per share data) | 2022 |  | 2021
Net income to common stockholders | $ | 998,839 |  |  | $ | 728,060 |
Weighted average diluted shares | 279,644 |  |  | 280,590 |
Net income per diluted share | $ | 3.57 |  |  | $ | 2.59 |

The Company reported net income to common stockholders of $999 million in 2022 compared to $728 million in 2021. The $271 million increase in net income was primarily due to an after-tax increase in underwriting income of $124 million mainly due to the growth in premium rates and exposure as well as reductions in expense ratio driven by net earned premium growth outpacing expense growth, an after-tax increase in foreign currency gains of $53 million as the U.S. dollar strengthened against the majority of other currencies in 2022, an after-tax increase in net investment gains of $40 million primarily due to sale of a real estate investment in London partly offset by the loss from change in market value on equity securities, an after-tax increase in net investment income of $33 million primarily due to rising interest rates and a larger investment portfolio related to fixed maturity securities, a reduction of $13 million in tax expense due to a change in the effective tax rate, an after-tax reduction on debt extinguishment expense of $9 million for debt redeemed in 2021, an after-tax reduction in interest expense of $9 million due to debt repayments at maturity and refinancings, an after-tax reduction in minority interest of $5 million, an after-tax increase in insurance service income of $4 million, and an after-tax increase in profits from non-insurance businesses of $2 million, partially offset by an after-tax increase in corporate expenses of $21 million mainly due to increased performance-based compensation costs. The number of weighted average diluted shares decreased by 0.9 million for 2022 compared to 2021, mainly reflecting shares repurchased in the second half of 2021.
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Premiums. Gross premiums written were $8,994 million in 2022, an increase of 13% from $7,933 million in 2021. The increase was due to a $968 million increase in the Insurance segment and a $93 million increase in the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. Approximately 82% of premiums expiring in 2022 and 2021 were renewed.
Average renewal premium rates for insurance and facultative reinsurance increased 6.5% in 2022 when adjusted for changes in exposures, and increased 7.7% excluding workers' compensation.
A summary of gross premiums written in 2022 compared with 2021 by line of business within each business segment follows:
•Insurance - gross premiums increased 14% to $7,976 million in 2022 from $7,009 million in 2021. Gross premiums increased $435 million (17%) for other liability, $292 million (19%) for short-tail lines, $130 million (15%) for commercial auto, $63 million (7%) for workers' compensation and $47 million (4%) for professional liability.
•Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - gross premiums increased 10% to $1,018 million in 2022 from $925 million in 2021. Gross premiums increased $60 million (11%) for casualty reinsurance, $24 million (14%) for property reinsurance and $9 million (4%) for monoline excess.
Net premiums written were $7,576 million in 2022, an increase of 15% from $6,587 million in 2021. Ceded reinsurance premiums as a percentage of gross written premiums were 16% in 2022, down from 17% in 2021, due in part to our decision to retain more business.
Premiums earned increased 19% to $7,048 million in 2022 from $5,903 million in 2021. Insurance premiums (including the impact of rate changes) are generally earned evenly over the policy term, and accordingly, recent rate increases will be earned over the upcoming quarters. Premiums earned in 2022 are related to business written during both 2022 and 2021. Audit premiums were $219 million in 2022 compared with $138 million in 2021 due to an increase in exposures.
Net Investment Income. Following is a summary of net investment income for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

| Amount |  | Average Annualized Yield
($ in thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Fixed maturity securities, including cash and cash equivalents and loans receivable | $ | 371,724 |  |  | $ | 284,704 |  |  | 2.6 | % |  | 2.2 | %
Investment funds | 121,919 |  |  | 169,538 |  |  | 10.1 |  |  | 16.5 |
Arbitrage trading account | 24,008 |  |  | 30,176 |  |  | 2.7 |  |  | 6.5 |
Equity securities | 38,303 |  |  | 21,854 |  |  | 4.9 |  |  | 5.0 |
Real estate | (1,702) |  |  | 5,517 |  |  | (0.2) |  |  | 0.4 |
Gross investment income | 554,252 |  |  | 511,789 |  |  | 3.1 |  |  | 3.1 |
Investment expenses | (6,350) |  |  | (5,174) |  |  | — |  |  | — |
Total | $ | 547,902 |  |  | $ | 506,615 |  |  | 3.0 | % |  | 3.1 | %

Net investment income increased 8% to $548 million in 2022 from $507 million in 2021 due primarily to a $87 million increase in income from fixed maturity securities mainly driven by rising interest rates and a larger investment portfolio and a $17 million increase from equity securities, partially offset by a $48 million decrease in income from investment funds primarily due to financial service funds, a $8 million decrease in real estate, a $6 million decrease from the arbitrage trading account and a $1 million increase in investment expenses. The Company maintained the short duration of its fixed maturity security portfolio, thereby reducing the potential impact of mark-to-market on the portfolio and positioning the Company to react quickly to changes in the current interest rate environment. We expect investment income to increase as interest rates continue to move higher. Average invested assets, at cost (including cash and cash equivalents), were $24.2 billion in 2022 and $21.9 billion in 2021.
Insurance Service Fees. The Company earns fees from an insurance distribution business, a third-party administrator and as a servicing carrier of workers' compensation assigned risk plans for certain states. Insurance service fees increased to $82 million in 2022 from $70 million in 2021, mainly due to the business recovery from the pandemic.
Net Realized and Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Investments. The Company buys and sells securities and other investment assets on a regular basis in order to maximize its total return on investments. Decisions to sell securities and other investment assets are based on management’s view of the underlying fundamentals of specific investments as well as
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management’s expectations regarding interest rates, credit spreads, currency values and general economic conditions. Net realized and unrealized gains on investments were $140 million in 2022 compared with $89 million in 2021. The gains of $140 million in 2022 reflected net realized gains on investments of $228 million (primarily a $251 million net gain from the sale of a real estate investment in London after transaction expenses and the foreign currency impact, including the reversal of the currency translation adjustment) partially offset by an increase in unrealized losses on equity securities of $89 million. In 2021, the gains of $89 million reflected net realized gains on investments of $151 million (primarily due to the sale of certain real estate assets and the disposition of an investment fund) partially offset by an increase in unrealized losses on equity securities of $62 million.
Change in Allowance for Expected Credit Losses on Investments. Based on credit factors, the allowance for expected credit losses is increased or decreased depending on the percentage of unrealized loss relative to amortized cost by security, changes in rating of the security by a rating agency, and adverse conditions specifically related to the security, among other factors. For the nine months ended September 30, 2022, the pre-tax change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments increased by $12 million ($10 million after-tax), which is reflected in net investment gains (losses), primarily due to change in estimate. For the nine months ended September 30, 2021, the pre-tax change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments increased by $11 million ($9 million after-tax), which is reflected in net investment gains (losses), primarily related to foreign government securities which did not previously have an allowance.
Revenues from Non-Insurance Businesses. Revenues from non-insurance businesses were derived from businesses engaged in the distribution of promotional merchandise, world-wide textile solutions and aviation-related businesses that provide services to aviation markets, including (i) the distribution, manufacturing, repair and overhaul of aircraft parts and components, (ii) the sale of new and used aircraft, and (iii) avionics, fuel, maintenance, storage and charter services. Revenues from non-insurance businesses were $345 million in 2022 and $317 million in 2021. The increase mainly relates to the business recovery from COVID-19 on promotional merchandise and textile business as well as a newly acquired commercial and residential textile business in 2022, partially offset by a decrease for the aviation-related business.
Losses and Loss Expenses. Losses and loss expenses increased to $4,340 million in 2022 from $3,624 million in 2021. The consolidated loss ratio was 61.6% in 2022 and 61.4% in 2021. Catastrophe losses, net of reinsurance recoveries, were $181 million (including current accident year losses of approximately $4 million related to COVID-19) in 2022 and $154 million (including losses of approximately $46 million related to COVID-19) in 2021. Adverse prior year reserve development (net of premium offsets) was $37 million in 2022 and favorable prior year reserve development was $5 million in 2021 (refer to Note 17 of our interim consolidated financial statements for more details). The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development was 58.5% in 2022 and 58.9% in 2021.
A summary of loss ratios in 2022 compared with 2021 by business segment follows:
•Insurance - The loss ratio was 61.3% in 2022 and 61.4% in 2021. Catastrophe losses were $102 million in 2022 compared with $109 million in 2021. The Company reflected a best estimate (net of reinsurance) based upon available information for current accident year COVID-19-related losses of approximately $2 million. Adverse prior year reserve development was $33 million in 2022, driven by two businesses that wrote policies providing coverage for event cancellation and film production delay which were heavily impacted by losses directly caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and favorable prior year reserve development was $8 million in 2021. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development decreased 0.4 points to 59.1% in 2022 from 59.5% in 2021.
•Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - The loss ratio was 63.7% in 2022 and 61.5% in 2021. Catastrophe losses were $79 million in 2022 compared with $45 million in 2021. The Company reflected a best estimate (net of reinsurance) based upon available information for current accident year COVID-19-related losses of approximately $2 million. Adverse prior year reserve development was $4 million in 2022 and $3 million in 2021. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development decreased 0.8 points to 54.3% in 2022 from 55.1% in 2021.
Other Operating Costs and Expenses. Following is a summary of other operating costs and expenses for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

($ in thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses | $ | 1,974,676 |  |  | $ | 1,694,548 |
Insurance service expenses | 71,348 |  |  | 63,817 |
Net foreign currency gains | (85,060) |  |  | (19,216) |
Debt extinguishment costs | — |  |  | 11,521 |
Other costs and expenses | 178,292 |  |  | 156,350 |
Total | $ | 2,139,256 |  |  | $ | 1,907,020 |

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Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses are comprised of commissions paid to agents and brokers, premium taxes and other assessments and internal underwriting costs. Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses increased 16.5% and net premiums earned increased 19.4% from 2021. The expense ratio (underwriting expenses expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned) was 28.0% in 2022, down from 28.7% in 2021. The improvement is primarily attributable to higher net premiums earned outpacing compensation expense growth. However, to the extent our net premiums earned decrease or travel and entertainment expenses increase, our expense ratio would be expected to increase.
Service expenses, which represent the costs associated with the fee-based businesses, were $71 million in 2022 and $64 million in 2021.
Net foreign currency gains result from transactions denominated in a currency other than a company's operating functional currency. Net foreign currency gains were $85 million in 2022 compared to $19 million in 2021. The increase in gains is primarily related to the strengthening of the U.S. dollar compared to the majority of other currencies in 2022 versus 2021.
Debt extinguishment costs of $12 million in 2021 related to the redemption of $400 million of subordinated debentures in March and June 2021 that were due in 2056.
Other costs and expenses represent general and administrative expenses of the parent company and other expenses not allocated to business segments, including the cost of certain long-term incentive plans and new business ventures. Other costs and expenses increased to $178 million in 2022 from $156 million in 2021, primarily due to the increase in performance-based compensation costs in 2022.
Expenses from Non-Insurance Businesses. Expenses from non-insurance businesses represent costs associated with businesses engaged in the distribution of promotional merchandise, world-wide textile solutions and aviation-related businesses that include (i) cost of goods sold related to aircraft and products sold and services provided, and (ii) general and administrative expenses. Expenses from non-insurance businesses were $334 million in 2022 compared to $308 million in 2021. The increase mainly relates to the business recovery from COVID-19 on promotional merchandise and textile business as well as a newly acquired residential and commercial textile business in 2022, partially offset by a decrease for the aviation-related business.
Interest Expense. Interest expense was $98 million in 2022 and $110 million in 2021. In March 2021, the Company issued $400 million aggregate principal amount of 3.55% senior notes due 2052 and redeemed its $110 million aggregate principal amount of 5.90% subordinated debentures due 2056. In June 2021, the Company redeemed the $290 million aggregate principal amount of its 5.75% subordinated debentures due 2056. In September 2021, the Company issued $350 million aggregate principal amount of 3.15% senior notes due 2061.
In the first quarter of 2022, the Company repaid at maturity its $77 million aggregate principal amount of 8.7% senior notes in January and its $350 million aggregate principal amount of 4.625% senior notes in March. The above redemptions during the nine months ended September 30, 2021 resulted in debt extinguishment costs of $12 million. Additionally, in the second quarter of 2021, the Company sold a real estate asset, which resulted in a $102 million reduction of the Company's non-recourse debt that was supporting the property.
The maturity and redemption of senior notes and debentures and issuance of additional senior notes and debentures in 2022 and 2021 decreased interest expense in 2022.
Income Taxes. The effective income tax rate was 19.2% and 20.6% for the nine months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The lower effective income tax rate for the nine months ended September 30, 2022, compared to the year earlier period, was primarily due to a net reduction to the Company’s valuation allowance against foreign tax credits and foreign net operating losses.
The Company has not provided U.S. deferred income taxes on the undistributed earnings of approximately $147.4 million of its non-U.S. subsidiaries since these earnings are intended to be permanently reinvested in the non-U.S. subsidiaries. In the future, if such earnings were distributed the Company projects that the incremental tax, if any, will be immaterial.
Results of Operations for the Three Months Ended September 30, 2022 and 2021
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Business Segment Results
Following is a summary of gross and net premiums written, net premiums earned, loss ratios (losses and loss expenses incurred expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned), expense ratios (underwriting expenses expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned) and GAAP combined ratios (sum of loss ratio and expense ratio) for each of our business segments for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021. The GAAP combined ratio represents a measure of underwriting profitability, excluding investment income. A GAAP combined ratio in excess of 100 indicates an underwriting loss; a number below 100 indicates an underwriting profit.

($ in thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Insurance: |  |  |
Gross premiums written | $ | 2,719,824 |  |  | $ | 2,446,758 |
Net premiums written | 2,237,608 |  |  | 2,007,194 |
Net premiums earned | 2,129,014 |  |  | 1,819,071 |
Loss ratio | 63.2 | % |  | 61.4 | %
Expense ratio | 28.0 | % |  | 27.9 | %
GAAP combined ratio | 91.2 | % |  | 89.3 | %
Reinsurance & Monoline Excess: |  |  |
Gross premiums written | $ | 362,114 |  |  | $ | 340,740 |
Net premiums written | 339,666 |  |  | 317,945 |
Net premiums earned | 312,947 |  |  | 261,947 |
Loss ratio | 70.2 | % |  | 69.3 | %
Expense ratio | 28.4 | % |  | 29.1 | %
GAAP combined ratio | 98.6 | % |  | 98.4 | %
Consolidated: |  |  |
Gross premiums written | $ | 3,081,938 |  |  | $ | 2,787,499 |
Net premiums written | 2,577,274 |  |  | 2,325,138 |
Net premiums earned | 2,441,961 |  |  | 2,081,018 |
Loss ratio | 64.1 | % |  | 62.4 | %
Expense ratio | 28.0 | % |  | 28.0 | %
GAAP combined ratio | 92.1 | % |  | 90.4 | %

Net Income to Common Stockholders. The following table presents the Company’s net income to common stockholders and net income per diluted share for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

(In thousands, except per share data) | 2022 |  | 2021
Net income to common stockholders | $ | 228,879 |  |  | $ | 261,297 |
Weighted average diluted shares | 279,642 |  |  | 280,113 |
Net income per diluted share | $ | 0.82 |  |  | $ | 0.93 |

The Company reported net income to common stockholders of $229 million in 2022 compared to $261 million in 2021. The $32 million decrease in net income was primarily due to an after-tax decrease in net investment gains of $70 million mainly due to change in market value on equity securities, an after-tax increase in corporate expenses of $6 million, an after-tax decrease in underwriting income of $5 million, and an after-tax decrease in profits from non-insurance businesses of $2 million, partially offset by an after-tax increase in foreign currency gains of $23 million due to strengthening of the U.S. dollar against the majority of other currencies, an after-tax increase in net investment income of $19 million primarily due to rising interest rates and a larger investment portfolio related to fixed maturity securities, an after-tax reduction in minority interest of $4 million, an after-tax reduction in interest expenses of $3 million due to lower interest rates from refinancings and an after-tax increase of $2 million in insurance service income. The number of weighted average diluted shares decreased by 0.5 million for 2022 compared to 2021, mainly reflecting shares repurchased in 2021.
Premiums. Gross premiums written were $3,082 million in 2022, an increase of 11% from $2,787 million in 2021. The increase was due to a $273 million increase in the Insurance segment and a $22 million increase in the Reinsurance & Monoline Excess segment. Approximately 81% of premiums expiring in 2022 were renewed, and 82% of premiums expiring in 2021 were renewed.
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Average renewal premium rates for insurance and facultative reinsurance increased 6.1% in 2022 when adjusted for changes in exposures, and increased 7.3% excluding workers' compensation.
A summary of gross premiums written in 2022 compared with 2021 by line of business within each business segment follows:
•Insurance - gross premiums increased 11% to $2,720 million in 2022 from $2,447 million in 2021. Gross premiums increased $113 million (13%) for other liability, $97 million (18%) for short-tail lines, $42 million (13%) for commercial auto, $31 million (11%) for workers' compensation and decreased $10 million (2%) for professional liability.
•Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - gross premiums increased 6% to $362 million in 2022 from $340 million in 2021. Gross premiums increased $19 million (31%) for property reinsurance, $2 million (1%) for casualty reinsurance and $1 million (2%) for monoline excess.
Net premiums written were $2,577 million in 2022, an increase of 11% from $2,325 million in 2021. Ceded reinsurance premiums as a percentage of gross written premiums were 16% in 2022, down from 17% in 2021, due in part to our decision to retain more business.
Premiums earned increased 17% to $2,442 million in 2022 from $2,081 million in 2021. Insurance premiums (including the impact of rate changes) are generally earned evenly over the policy term, and accordingly, recent rate increases will be earned over the upcoming quarters. Premiums earned in 2022 are related to business written during both 2022 and 2021. Audit premiums were $77 million in 2022 compared with $54 million in 2021 due to an increase in exposures.
Net Investment Income. Following is a summary of net investment income for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

| Amount |  | Average Annualized Yield
($ in thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021 |  | 2022 |  | 2021
Fixed maturity securities, including cash and cash equivalents and loans receivable | $ | 146,051 |  |  | $ | 93,031 |  |  | 3.0 | % |  | 2.1 | %
Investment funds | 36,045 |  |  | 69,292 |  |  | 8.5 |  |  | 19.9 |
Arbitrage trading account | 10,694 |  |  | 7,187 |  |  | 3.7 |  |  | 3.8 |
Equity securities | 14,650 |  |  | 8,462 |  |  | 5.1 |  |  | 5.0 |
Real estate | (2,297) |  |  | 3,485 |  |  | (0.7) |  |  | 0.8 |
Gross investment income | 205,143 |  |  | 181,457 |  |  | 3.3 |  |  | 3.2 |
Investment expenses | (2,327) |  |  | (1,606) |  |  | — |  |  | — |
Total | $ | 202,816 |  |  | $ | 179,851 |  |  | 3.3 | % |  | 3.2 | %

Net investment income increased 13% to $203 million in 2022 from $180 million in 2021 due primarily to a $53 million increase in income from fixed maturity securities mainly driven by rising interest rates and a larger investment portfolio, a $6 million increase from equity securities, a $4 million increase from arbitrage trading account, partially offset by a $33 million decrease in income from investment funds primarily due to financial services funds, a $6 million decrease in real estate and a $1 million increase in investment expense. The Company maintained the short duration of its fixed maturity security portfolio, thereby reducing the potential impact of mark-to-market on the portfolio and positioning the Company to react quickly to changes in the current interest rate environment. We expect investment income to increase as interest rates continue to move higher. Average invested assets, at cost (including cash and cash equivalents), were $24.6 billion in 2022 and $22.5 billion in 2021.
Insurance Service Fees. The Company earns fees from an insurance distribution business, a third-party administrator and as a servicing carrier of workers' compensation assigned risk plans for certain states. Insurance service fees increased to $28 million in 2022 from $21 million in 2021, mainly due to the business recovery from the pandemic.
Net Realized and Unrealized (Losses) Gains on Investments. The Company buys and sells securities and other investment assets on a regular basis in order to maximize its total return on investments. Decisions to sell securities and other investment assets are based on management’s view of the underlying fundamentals of specific investments as well as management’s expectations regarding interest rates, credit spreads, currency values and general economic conditions. Net realized and unrealized losses on investments were $66 million in 2022 compared with net gains of $17 million in 2021. The losses of $66 million in 2022 reflected net realized losses on investments of $16 million (primarily due to foreign exchange
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losses on investments) and an increase in unrealized losses on equity securities of $50 million. In 2021, the gains of $17 million reflected net realized gains on investments of $36 million, partially offset by an increase in unrealized losses on equity securities of $19 million.
Change in Allowance for Expected Credit Losses on Investments. Based on credit factors, the allowance for expected credit losses is increased or decreased depending on the percentage of unrealized loss relative to amortized cost by security, changes in rating of the security by a rating agency, and adverse conditions specifically related to the security, among other factors. For the three months ended September 30, 2022, the pre-tax change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments increased by $1 million ($0.9 million after-tax), which is reflected in net investment gains (losses), primarily due to change in estimate. For the three months ended September 30, 2021, the pre-tax change in allowance for expected credit losses on investments decreased by $2 million ($1.6 million after-tax), which is reflected in net investment gains (losses).
Revenues from Non-Insurance Businesses. Revenues from non-insurance businesses were derived from businesses engaged in the distribution of promotional merchandise, world-wide textile solutions and aviation-related businesses that provide services to aviation markets, including (i) the distribution, manufacturing, repair and overhaul of aircraft parts and components, (ii) the sale of new and used aircraft, and (iii) avionics, fuel, maintenance, storage and charter services. Revenues from non-insurance businesses were $119 million in 2022 and $120 million in 2021.
Losses and Loss Expenses. Losses and loss expenses increased to $1,565 million in 2022 from $1,298 million in 2021. The consolidated loss ratio was 64.1% in 2022 and 62.4% in 2021. Catastrophe losses, net of reinsurance recoveries, were $94 million (including current accident year losses of approximately $1 million related to COVID-19) in 2022 primarily due to Hurricane Ian and $74 million (including losses of approximately $6 million related to COVID-19) in 2021. Adverse prior year reserve development (net of premium offsets) was $39 million in 2022 and favorable prior year reserve development was $2 million in 2021 (refer to Note 17 of our interim consolidated financial statements for more details). The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development was 58.6% in 2022 and 58.9% in 2021.
A summary of loss ratios in 2022 compared with 2021 by business segment follows:
•Insurance - The loss ratio was 63.2% in 2022 and 61.4% in 2021. Catastrophe losses were $51 million in 2022 compared with $39 million in 2021. The Company reflected a best estimate (net of reinsurance) based upon available information for current accident year COVID-19-related losses of approximately $1 million. Adverse prior year reserve development was $35 million in 2022, driven primarily by two businesses that wrote policies providing coverage for event cancellation and film production delay which were heavily impacted by losses directly caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and $3 million in 2021. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development increased 0.1 points to 59.1% in 2022 from 59.0% in 2021.
•Reinsurance & Monoline Excess - The loss ratio was 70.2% in 2022 and 69.3% in 2021. Catastrophe losses were $43 million in 2022 compared with $35 million in 2021. Adverse prior year reserve development was $4 million in 2022 and favorable prior year reserve development was $5 million in 2021. The loss ratio excluding catastrophe losses and prior year reserve development decreased 2.8 points to 55.3% in 2022 from 58.1% in 2021.
Other Operating Costs and Expenses. Following is a summary of other operating costs and expenses for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021:

($ in thousands) | 2022 |  | 2021
Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses | $ | 685,325 |  |  | $ | 583,065 |
Insurance service expenses | 24,991 |  |  | 21,243 |
Net foreign currency gains | (41,065) |  |  | (12,497) |
Other costs and expenses | 56,286 |  |  | 51,234 |
Total | $ | 725,537 |  |  | $ | 643,045 |

Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses are comprised of commissions paid to agents and brokers, premium taxes and other assessments and internal underwriting costs. Policy acquisition and insurance operating expenses increased 17.5% and net premiums earned increased 17.3% from 2021. The expense ratio (underwriting expenses expressed as a percentage of net premiums earned) was 28.0% in both 2022 and 2021. To the extent our net premiums earned decrease or travel and entertainment expenses increase, our expense ratio would be expected to increase.
Service expenses, which represent the costs associated with the fee-based businesses, were $25 million in 2022 and $21 million in 2021.
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Net foreign currency gains result from transactions denominated in a currency other than a company's operating functional currency. Net foreign currency gains were $41 million in 2022 compared to $12 million in 2021. The increase in gains is primarily due to the strengthening of the U.S. dollar compared to the majority of other currencies in 2022 versus 2021.
Other costs and expenses represent general and administrative expenses of the parent company and other expenses not allocated to business segments, including the cost of certain long-term incentive plans and new business ventures. Other costs and expenses increased to $56 million in 2022 from $51 million in 2021, primarily due to the increase in expenses for new business ventures and employee related costs.
Expenses from Non-Insurance Businesses. Expenses from non-insurance businesses represent costs associated with businesses engaged in the distribution of promotional merchandise, world-wide textile solutions and aviation-related businesses that include (i) cost of goods sold related to aircraft and products sold and services provided, and (ii) general and administrative expenses. Expenses from non-insurance businesses were $116 million in 2022 compared to $115 million in 2021.
Interest Expense. Interest expense was $32 million in 2022 and $35 million in 2021. In March 2021, the Company issued $400 million aggregate principal amount of 3.55% senior notes due 2052 and redeemed its $110 million aggregate principal amount of 5.90% subordinated debentures due 2056. In June 2021, the Company redeemed the $290 million aggregate principal amount of its 5.75% subordinated debentures due 2056. In September 2021, the Company issued $350 million aggregate principal amount of 3.15% senior notes due 2061.
In the first quarter of 2022, the Company repaid at maturity its $77 million aggregate principal amount of 8.7% senior notes in January and its $350 million aggregate principal amount of 4.625% senior notes in March. The above redemptions during the three months ended September 30, 2021 resulted in debt extinguishment costs of $8 million. Additionally, in the second quarter of 2021, the Company sold a real estate asset, which resulted in a $102 million reduction of the Company's non-recourse debt that was supporting the property.
The maturity and redemption of senior notes and debentures and issuance of additional senior notes and debentures in 2022 and 2021 decreased interest expense in 2022.
Income Taxes. The effective income tax rate was 19.5% and 19.6% for the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The lower effective income tax rate for both the three months ended September 30, 2022 and 2021 is primarily attributable to tax benefits related to equity based compensation, which was partially offset by state income taxes.
The Company has not provided U.S. deferred income taxes on the undistributed earnings of approximately $147.4 million of its non-U.S. subsidiaries since these earnings are intended to be permanently reinvested in the non-U.S. subsidiaries. In the future, if such earnings were distributed the Company projects that the incremental tax, if any, will be immaterial.
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Investments
As part of its investment strategy, the Company establishes a level of cash and highly liquid short-term and intermediate-term securities that, combined with expected cash flow, it believes is adequate to meet its payment obligations. Due to the low fixed maturity investment returns, the Company invests in equity securities, merger arbitrage securities, investment funds, private equity, loans and real estate related assets. The Company's investments in investment funds and its other alternative investments have experienced, and the Company expects to continue to experience, greater fluctuations in investment income.
The Company also attempts to maintain an appropriate relationship between the average duration of the investment portfolio and the approximate duration of its liabilities (i.e., policy claims and debt obligations). The average duration of the fixed maturity portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, were both 2.4 years at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021. The Company’s fixed maturity investment portfolio and investment-related assets as of September 30, 2022 were as follows:

($ in thousands) | Carrying Value |  | Percent of Total
Fixed maturity securities: |  |  |
U.S. government and government agencies | $ | 870,592 |  |  | 3.7 | %
State and municipal: |  |  |
Special revenue | 1,751,924 |  |  | 7.4 |
Local general obligation | 433,131 |  |  | 1.8 |
State general obligation | 392,565 |  |  | 1.7 |
Corporate backed | 185,091 |  |  | 0.8 |
Pre-refunded (1) | 157,431 |  |  | 0.7 |
Total state and municipal | 2,920,142 |  |  | 12.4 |
Mortgage-backed: |  |  |
Agency | 906,645 |  |  | 3.9 |
Commercial | 456,937 |  |  | 1.9 |
Residential-Prime | 227,402 |  |  | 1.0 |
Residential-Alt A | 3,857 |  |  | — |
Total mortgage-backed | 1,594,841 |  |  | 6.8 |
Asset-backed | 4,241,438 |  |  | 17.9 |
Corporate: |  |  |
Industrial | 3,131,786 |  |  | 13.2 |
Financial | 2,269,552 |  |  | 9.6 |
Utilities | 458,097 |  |  | 1.9 |
Other | 345,309 |  |  | 1.5 |
Total corporate | 6,204,744 |  |  | 26.2 |
Foreign government and foreign government agencies | 1,399,179 |  |  | 5.9 |
Total fixed maturity securities | 17,230,936 |  |  | 72.9 |
Equity securities: |  |  |
Common stocks | 952,369 |  |  | 4.0 |
Preferred stocks | 221,220 |  |  | 1.0 |
Total equity securities | 1,173,589 |  |  | 5.0 |
Investment funds | 1,662,029 |  |  | 7.1 |
Real estate | 1,320,550 |  |  | 5.5 |
Arbitrage trading account | 1,165,016 |  |  | 4.9 |
Cash and cash equivalents (2) | 972,838 |  |  | 4.1 |
Loans receivable | 112,800 |  |  | 0.5 |
Total investments | $ | 23,637,758 |  |  | 100.0 | %

____________________
(1) Pre-refunded securities are securities for which an escrow account has been established to fund the remaining payments of principal and interest through maturity. Such escrow accounts are funded almost exclusively with U.S. Treasury and U.S. government agency securities.
(2) Cash and cash equivalents includes trading accounts receivable from brokers and clearing organizations, trading account securities sold but not yet purchased and unsettled purchases.
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Fixed Maturity Securities. The Company’s investment policy with respect to fixed maturity securities is generally to purchase instruments with the expectation of holding them to their maturity. However, management of the available for sale portfolio is considered necessary to maintain an approximate matching of assets and liabilities as well as to adjust the portfolio as a result of changes in financial market conditions and tax considerations.
The Company’s philosophy related to holding or selling fixed maturity securities is based on its objective of maximizing total return. The key factors that management considers in its investment decisions as to whether to hold or sell fixed maturity securities are its view of the underlying fundamentals of specific securities as well as its expectations regarding interest rates, credit spreads and currency values. In a period in which management expects interest rates to rise, the Company may sell longer duration securities in order to mitigate the impact of an interest rate rise on the fair value of the portfolio. Similarly, in a period in which management expects credit spreads to widen, the Company may sell lower quality securities, and in a period in which management expects certain foreign currencies to decline in value, the Company may sell securities denominated in those foreign currencies. The sale of fixed maturity securities in order to achieve the objective of maximizing total return may result in realized gains or losses; however, there is no reason to expect these gains or losses to continue in future periods.
Equity Securities. Equity securities primarily represent investments in common and preferred stocks in companies with potential growth opportunities in different sectors, mainly in the financial institutions and energy sectors.
Investment Funds. At September 30, 2022, the carrying value of investment funds was $1,662 million, including investments in financial services funds of $468 million, other funds of $390 million (which includes a deferred compensation trust asset of $31 million), transportation funds of $347 million, real estate funds of $225 million, energy funds of $121 million and infrastructure funds of $111 million. Investment funds are generally reported on a one-quarter lag.
Real Estate. Real estate is directly owned property held for investment. At September 30, 2022, real estate properties in operation included a long-term ground lease in Washington D.C., an office complex in New York City and the completed portion of a mixed-use project in Washington D.C. In addition, part of the previously mentioned mixed-use project in Washington D.C. is under development. The Company expects to fund further development costs for the project with a combination of its own funds and external financing. During the first quarter of 2022, the Company sold an office building in London.
Arbitrage Trading Account. The arbitrage trading account is comprised of direct investments in arbitrage securities. Merger arbitrage is the business of investing in the securities of publicly held companies that are the targets in announced tender offers and mergers.
Loans Receivable. Loans receivable, which are carried at amortized cost (net of allowance for expected credit losses), had an amortized cost of $113 million and an aggregate fair value of $112 million at September 30, 2022. The amortized cost of loans receivable is net of an allowance for expected credit losses of $2 million as of September 30, 2022. Loans receivable include real estate loans of $89 million that are secured by commercial and residential real estate located primarily in New York. Real estate loans generally earn interest at fixed or stepped interest rates and have maturities through 2026. Loans receivable include commercial loans of $24 million that are secured by business assets and have fixed interest rates with varying maturities not exceeding 10 years.
Market Risk. The fair value of the Company’s investments is subject to risks of fluctuations in credit quality and interest rates. The Company uses various models and stress test scenarios to monitor and manage interest rate risk. The Company attempts to manage its interest rate risk by maintaining an appropriate relationship between the effective duration of the investment portfolio and the approximate duration of its liabilities (i.e., policy claims and debt obligations). The effective duration for the fixed maturity portfolio (including cash and cash equivalents) was both 2.4 years at September 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021.
In addition, the fair value of the Company’s international investments is subject to currency risk. The Company attempts to manage its currency risk by matching its foreign currency assets and liabilities where considered appropriate.
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Liquidity and Capital Resources
Cash Flow. Cash flow provided from operating activities increased to $1,773 million in the first nine months of 2022 from $1,524 million in the first nine months of 2021, primarily due to an increase in premium receipts partially offset by increased loss and loss expense payments.
The Company's insurance subsidiaries' principal sources of cash are premiums, investment income, service fees and proceeds from sales and maturities of portfolio investments. The principal uses of cash are payments for claims, taxes, operating expenses and dividends. The Company expects its insurance subsidiaries to fund the payment of losses with cash received from premiums, investment income and fees. The Company generally targets an average duration for its investment portfolio that is within 1.5 years of the average duration of its liabilities so that portions of its investment portfolio mature throughout the claim cycle and are available for the payment of claims if necessary. In the event operating cash flow and proceeds from maturities and prepayments of fixed income securities are not sufficient to fund claim payments and other cash requirements, the remainder of the Company's cash and investments is available to pay claims and other obligations as they become due. The Company's investment portfolio is highly liquid, with approximately 77% invested in cash, cash equivalents and marketable fixed maturity securities as of September 30, 2022. If the sale of fixed maturity securities were to become necessary, a realized gain or loss equal to the difference between the cost and sales price of securities sold would be recognized.
Debt. At September 30, 2022, the Company had senior notes, subordinated debentures and other debt outstanding with a carrying value of $2,842 million and a face amount of $2,868 million. In the first quarter of 2022, the Company repaid at maturity its $77 million aggregate principal amount of 8.7% senior notes in January and its $350 million aggregate principal amount of 4.625% senior notes in March. The maturities of the outstanding debt are $7 million in 2024, $6 million in 2025, $250 million in 2037, $350 million in 2044, $470 million in 2050, $400 million in 2052, $185 million in 2058, $300 million in 2059, $250 million in 2060, and $650 million in 2061.
On April 1, 2022, the Company entered into a senior unsecured revolving credit facility that provides for revolving, unsecured borrowings up to an aggregate of $300 million with a $50 million sublimit for letters of credit. The Company may increase the amount available under the facility to a maximum of $500 million subject to obtaining lender commitments for the increase and other customary conditions. Borrowings under the facility may be used for working capital and other general corporate purposes. All borrowings under the facility must be repaid by April 1, 2027, except that letters of credit outstanding on that date may remain outstanding until April 1, 2028 (or such later date approved by all lenders). Our ability to utilize the facility is conditioned on the satisfaction of representations, warranties and covenants that are customary for facilities of this type. As of the date of this report, there were no borrowings outstanding under the facility.
Equity. At September 30, 2022, total common stockholders’ equity was $6.3 billion, common shares outstanding were 265,801,717 and stockholders’ equity per outstanding share was $23.88. During the nine months ended September 30, 2022, the Company repurchased 106,304 shares of its common stock for $6.6 million. In the third quarter of 2022, the board of directors of the Company declared a regular quarterly cash dividend of $0.10 per share. In the second quarter of 2022, the board of directors of the Company declared a regular quarterly cash dividend of $0.10 per share and a special cash dividend of $0.50 per share. In the first quarter of 2022, the board of directors of the Company declared a regular quarterly cash dividend of $0.09 cents per share. The number of common shares outstanding excludes shares held in a grantor trust established by the Company for delivery upon settlement of vested but mandatorily deferred RSUs.
Total Capital. Total capitalization (equity, debt and subordinated debentures) was $9.2 billion at September 30, 2022. The percentage of the Company’s capital attributable to senior notes, subordinated debentures and other debt was 31% at September 30, 2022, down from 33% at December 31, 2021.
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Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosure About Market Risk
Reference is made to the information under “Investments - Market Risk” under the caption “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” in this Form 10-Q.
Item 4. Controls and Procedures
Disclosure Controls and Procedures. The Company’s management, including its Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, has conducted an evaluation of the effectiveness of the Company’s disclosure controls and procedures pursuant to Securities Exchange Act Rule 13a-14 as of the end of the period covered by this quarterly report. Based on that evaluation, the Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer concluded that the Company has in place effective controls and procedures designed to ensure that information required to be disclosed by the Company in the reports it files or submits under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, and the rules thereunder, is recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the time periods specified in the Securities and Exchange Commission’s rules and forms.
Changes in Internal Control over Financial Reporting. During the quarter ended September 30, 2022, there were no changes in the Company’s internal control over financial reporting that have materially affected, or are reasonably likely to materially affect, the Company’s internal control over financial reporting.
PART II — OTHER INFORMATION
Item 1. Legal Proceedings
Please see Note 21 to the notes to the interim consolidated financial statements.
Item 1A. Risk Factors
There have been no material changes from the risk factors previously disclosed in the Company’s annual report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2021.
Item 2. Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds
Set forth below is a summary of the shares repurchased by the Company during the three months ended September 30, 2022, and the number of shares remaining authorized for purchase by the Company:

| Total number of shares purchased |  | Average price paid per share |  | Total number of shares purchased as part of publicly announced plans or programs |  | Maximum number of shares that may yet be purchased under the plans or programs
July 2022 | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | — |  |  | 15,000,000 |
August 2022 | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | — |  |  | 15,000,000 |
September 2022 | 106,304 |  |  | $ | 61.78 |  |  | 106,304 |  |  | 14,893,696 |

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Item 6. Exhibits

Number |  |  |
(31.1) |  | Certification of the Chief Executive Officer pursuant to Rule 13a-14(a)/ 15d-14(a). |
(31.2) |  | Certification of the Chief Financial Officer pursuant to Rule 13a-14(a)/ 15d-14(a). |
(32.1) |  | Certification of the Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer pursuant to 18 U.S.C. Section 1350, as adopted pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. |

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SIGNATURES
Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the Registrant has duly caused this Report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned thereunto duly authorized.

|  | W. R. BERKLEY CORPORATION
Date: | November 4, 2022 | /s/ W. Robert Berkley, Jr.
|  | W. Robert Berkley, Jr.
|  | President and Chief Executive Officer
Date: | November 4, 2022 | /s/ Richard M. Baio
|  | Richard M. Baio
|  | Executive Vice President - Chief Financial Officer

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