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Summary of Critical and Significant Accounting Policies (Policies) | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2018
Accounting Policies [Abstract] |
Principles of Consolidation and Basis of Presentation | Principles of Consolidation and Basis of Presentation The accounts of the Company, its controlled subsidiaries and the variable interest entities ("VIEs") in which it is the primary beneficiary are consolidated in the accompanying financial statements and prepared in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles ("U.S. GAAP"). In the opinion of management, all adjustments necessary for a fair presentation of the financial position, results of operations and cash flows for the periods presented have been included and are normal and recurring in nature. All significant inter-company accounts and transactions have been eliminated. Certain reclassifications have been made to conform to the current year’s presentation, including the reclassification of corporate-level property management expenses out of property operating, excluding real estate taxes to its own line item on the Company's consolidated statements of income and comprehensive income. $13.2 million has been reclassified out of other assets and into buildings and improvements on the Company's consolidated balance sheets as of December 31, 2017. Such reclassifications had no net effect on previously reported financial results. Noncontrolling interest includes the 3.4% limited partner interests in the Operating Partnership not held by the Company at both December 31, 2018 and 2017. These percentages include the Operating Partnership’s vested long term incentive plan units (see Note 13). (b) Accoun
Recent Accounting Pronouncements | In May 2014, the Financial Accounting Standards Board ("FASB") issued Accounting Standards Update ("ASU") No. 2014-09 "Revenue from Contracts with Customers." The new standard provides a single comprehensive revenue recognition model for contracts with customers (excluding certain contracts, such as lease contracts) to improve comparability within industries. The new standard requires an entity to recognize revenue to reflect the transfer of goods or services to customers at an amount the entity expects to be paid in exchange for those goods and services and provide enhanced disclosures, all to provide more comprehensive guidance for transactions such as service revenue and contract modifications. The Company adopted ASU 2014-09 as of January 1, 2018, using the modified retrospective approach. See Note 4, Revenues, for further details. In January 2016, the FASB issued ASU No. 2016-01 "Recognition and Measurement of Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities", which requires changes to the classification and measurement of investments in certain equity securities and to the presentation of certain fair value changes for financial liabilities measured at fair value. The Company adopted ASU No. 2016-01 as of January 1, 2018 using the modified retrospective method by applying a cumulative effect adjustment to retained earnings and partners' capital of $2.2 million, representing accumulated net unrealized gains of certain equity securities held by the Company. Furthermore, as a result of the adoption of this standard, the Company will recognize changes in the fair value of equity investments with readily determinable fair values through net income as opposed to comprehensive income. In August 2016, the FASB issued ASU No. 2016-15 "Classification of Certain Cash Receipts and Cash Payments", which requires entities to adhere to a uniform classification and presentation of certain cash receipts and cash payments in the statement of cash flows. The amendments in this update provide guidance on eight specific cash flow issues.The Company adopted ASU No. 2016-15 as of January 1, 2018 using the retrospective transition method. This amendment did not have a material impact on the Company's consolidated results of operations or financial position. In November 2016, the FASB issued ASU No. 2016-18 "Statement of Cash Flows", which requires entities to include restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents in the reconciliation of beginning-of-period to the end-of-period of cash and cash equivalents in the statement of cash flows. This new standard seeks to eliminate the current diversity in practice in how changes in restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents is presented in the statement of cash flows. The Company adopted ASU No. 2016-18 as of January 1, 2018 using the retrospective transition method. This amendment did not have a material impact on the Company's consolidated results of operations or financial position. In January 2017, the FASB issued ASU No. 2017-01 "Business Combinations: Clarifying the Definition of a Business", which provides a new framework for determining whether transactions should be accounted for as acquisitions (or disposals) of assets or businesses. Previously, U.S. GAAP did not specify the minimum inputs and processes required for an integrated set of assets and activities to meet the definition of a business, causing a broad interpretation of the definition of a business. The Company adopted ASU No. 2017-01 as of January 1, 2018 prospectively. The Company expects that substantially all of its acquisitions of communities will qualify as asset acquisitions and transaction costs related to these acquisitions will be capitalized upon adoption. In February 2017, the FASB issued ASU No. 2017-05 "Other Income - Gains and Losses from the Derecognition of Nonfinancial Assets (Subtopic 610-20): Clarifying the Scope of Asset Derecognition Guidance and Accounting for Partial Sales of Nonfinancial Assets", which adds guidance for partial sales of nonfinancial assets, including partial sales of real estate. Historically, U.S. GAAP contained several different accounting models to evaluate whether the transfer of certain assets qualified for sale treatment. This new standard reduces the number of potential accounting models that might apply and clarifies which model does apply in various circumstances. Partial sales of nonfinancial assets are common in the real estate industry and include transactions in which the seller retains an equity interest in the entity that owns the assets or has an equity interest in the buyer. The Company adopted ASU No. 2017-05 concurrently with the adoption of ASU No. 2014-09 "Revenue from Contracts with Customers" as of January 1, 2018 using the modified retrospective method by applying a cumulative effect adjustment to retained earnings and partners' capital of $123.7 million representing the partial sale of its membership interest in BEX II, LLC ("BEX II") during the fourth quarter of 2016. (c) Recent Accounting Pronouncements In February 2016, the FASB issued ASU No. 2016-02 "Leases", which requires an entity that is a lessee to classify leases as either finance or operating and to recognize a lease liability and a right-of-use asset for all leases that have a duration of greater than 12 months. Leases of 12 months or less will be accounted for similar to existing guidance for operating leases today. For lessors, accounting for leases under the new standard will be substantially the same as existing guidance for sales-type leases, direct financing leases, and operating leases, but eliminates current real estate specific provisions and changes the treatment of initial direct costs. The Company expects that its residential and commercial leases, where it is the lessor, will continue to be accounted for as operating leases under the new standard. In July 2018, the FASB issued ASU No. 2018-11 "Leases (Topic 842): Targeted Improvements," which includes a practical expedient that allows lessors to not separate nonlease components from the associated lease component. This provides the Company with the option of not bifurcating certain common area maintenance recoveries as a non-lease component, if certain requirements are met. The Company expects to elect this practical expedient, which would result in minimum rents and expense recoveries being presented as a single rental revenue line item in the consolidated statement of income and comprehensive income. For leases where the Company is the lessee, which includes various corporate office and ground leases, the Company will be required to recognize a right of use asset and related lease liability on its consolidated balance sheets upon adoption. The Company expects that its corporate office leases, where it is the lessee, will continue to be accounted for as operating leases. The Company also expects to elect a package of practical expedients, under which the Company would not be required to reassess the classification of existing ground leases. The new standards will be effective for the Company beginning January 1, 2019 and early adoption is permitted, including adoption in an interim period. The new standard will be effective for the Company beginning January 1, 2019 and the Company estimates the adoption will result in the recognition of operating lease assets and operating lease liabilities not expected to exceed $85 million. In June 2016, the FASB issued ASU No. 2016-13 "Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Instruments", which amends the current approach to estimate credit losses on certain financial assets, including trade and other receivables, available-for-sale securities, and other financial instruments. Generally, this amendment requires entities to establish a valuation allowance for the expected lifetime losses of these certain financial assets. Subsequent changes in the valuation allowance are recorded in current earnings and reversal of previous losses are permitted. Currently, U.S. GAAP requires entities to write down credit losses only when losses are probable and loss reversals are not permitted. The new standard will be effective for the Company beginning on January 1, 2020 and early adoption is permitted. The Company is currently evaluating the impact of this amendment on its consolidated results of operations and financial position. In August 2017, the FASB issued ASU No. 2017-12 "Derivatives and Hedging - Targeted Improvements to Accounting for Hedging Activities", which, among other things, requires entities to present the earnings effect of hedging instruments in the same income statement line item in which the earnings effect of the hedged item is reported. The new standard also adds new disclosure requirements. This new standard will be effective for the Company beginning January 1, 2019 and early adoption is permitted. The Company expects to apply the new standard on January 1, 2019 and does not expect that this amendment will have a material effect on its consolidated results of operations or financial position. In August 2018, the FASB issued ASU No. 2018-13 "Fair Value Measurement (Topic 820): Disclosure Framework - Changes to the Disclosure Requirements for Fair Value Measurement," which eliminates certain disclosure requirements affecting all levels of measurements, and modifies and adds new disclosure requirements for Level 3 measurements. The new standard will be effective for the Company beginning January 1, 2020 and early adoption is permitted. The Company expects to apply the new standard on January 1, 2020 and does not expect the adoption to have a material impact on the Company's consolidated results of operations or financial position.
Real Estate Rental Properties | Real Estate Rental Properties Significant expenditures, which improve or extend the life of an asset and have a useful life of greater than one year, are capitalized. Operating real estate assets are stated at cost and consist of land, buildings and improvements, furniture, fixtures and equipment, and other costs incurred during their development, redevelopment and acquisition. Expenditures for maintenance and repairs are charged to expense as incurred. The depreciable life of various categories of fixed assets is as follows:
Computer software and equipment | 3 - 5 years
Interior apartment home improvements | 5 years
Furniture, fixtures and equipment | 5 - 10 years
Land improvements and certain exterior components of real property | 10 years
Real estate structures | 30 years
The Company capitalizes all costs incurred with the predevelopment, development or redevelopment of real estate assets or are associated with the construction or expansion of real property. Such capitalized costs include land, land improvements, allocated costs of the Company’s project management staff, construction costs, as well as interest and related loan fees, property taxes and insurance. Capitalization begins for predevelopment, development, and redevelopment projects when activity commences. Capitalization ends when the apartment home is completed and the property is available for a new tenant or if the development activities cease. The Company allocates the purchase price of real estate to land and building including personal property, and identifiable intangible assets, such as the value of above, below and in-place leases. The values of the above and below market leases are amortized and recorded as either a decrease (in the case of above market leases) or an increase (in the case of below market leases) to rental revenue over the remaining term of the associated leases acquired. The value of acquired in-place leases are amortized to expense over the average remaining term of the leases acquired. The net carrying value of acquired in-place leases is $0.1 million and $0.4 million as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, respectively, and are included in prepaid expenses and other assets on the Company's consolidated balance sheets. The Company performs the following evaluation for communities acquired:
(1) | adjust the purchase price for any fair value adjustments resulting from such things as assumed debt or contingencies;
(2) | estimate the value of the real estate "as if vacant" as of the acquisition date;
(3) | allocate that value among land and buildings including personal property;
(4) | compute the value of the difference between the "as if vacant" value and the adjusted purchase price, which will represent the total intangible assets;
(5) | compute the value of the above and below market leases and determine the associated life of the above market/below market leases;
(6) | compute the value of the in-place leases and customer relationships, if any, and the associated lives of these assets.
Whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of a property held for investment or held for sale may not be fully recoverable, the carrying amount will be evaluated for impairment. If the sum of the expected future cash flows (undiscounted and without interest charges) is less than the carrying amount (including intangible assets) of a property held for investment, then the Company will recognize an impairment loss equal to the excess of the carrying amount over the fair value of the property. Fair value of a property is determined using conventional real estate valuation methods, such as discounted cash flow, the property’s unleveraged yield in comparison to the unleveraged yields and sales prices of similar communities that have been recently sold, and other third party information, if available. Communities held for sale are carried at the lower of cost and fair value less estimated costs to sell. As of both December 31, 2018 and 2017, no properties were classified as held for sale. No impairment charges were recorded for the years ended December 31, 2018, 2017 or 2016. In the normal course of business, the Company will receive purchase offers for its communities, either solicited or unsolicited. For those offers that are accepted, the prospective buyer will usually require a due diligence period before consummation of the transaction. It is not unusual for matters to arise that result in the withdrawal or rejection of the offer during this process. The Company classifies real estate as "held for sale" when all criteria under the accounting standard for the disposals of long-lived assets have been met.
Co-investments | Co-investments The Company owns investments in joint ventures in which it has significant influence, but its ownership interest does not meet the criteria for consolidation in accordance with U.S. GAAP. Therefore, the Company accounts for co-investments using the equity method of accounting. Under the equity method of accounting, the investment is carried at the cost of assets contributed, plus the Company’s equity in earnings less distributions received and the Company’s share of losses. The significant accounting policies of the Company’s co-investment entities are consistent with those of the Company in all material respects. Upon the acquisition of a controlling interest of a co-investment, the co-investment entity is consolidated and a gain or loss is recognized upon the remeasurement of co-investments in the consolidated statement of income equal to the amount by which the fair value of the co-investment interest in the Company previously owned exceeds its carrying value. A majority of the co-investments, excluding the preferred equity investments, compensate the Company for its asset management services and some of these investments may provide promote income if certain financial return benchmarks are achieved. Asset management fees are recognized when earned, and promote fees are recognized when the earnings events have occurred and the amount is determinable and collectible. Any promote fees are reflected in equity income from co-investments. The Company reports investments in co-investments where accumulated distributions have exceeded the Company’s investment as distributions in excess of investments in co-investments in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets.
Revenues and Gains on Sale of Real Estate | Revenues and Gains on Sale of Real Estate Revenues from tenants renting or leasing apartment homes are recorded when due from tenants and are recognized monthly as they are earned, which is not materially different than on a straight-line basis. Apartment homes are rented under short-term leases (generally, lease terms of 6 to 12 months). Revenues from tenants leasing commercial space are recorded on a straight-line basis over the life of the respective lease. Subsequent to the adoption of ASU 610-20 on January 1, 2018, the Company recognizes any gains on sales of real estate when we transfer control of a property and when it is probable that we will collect substantially all of the related consideration.
Cash Equivalents and Restricted Cash | Cash, Cash Equivalents and Restricted Cash Highly liquid investments with original maturities of three months or less when purchased are classified as cash equivalents. Restricted cash balances relate primarily to reserve requirements for capital replacement at certain communities in connection with the Company’s mortgage debt.
Marketable Securities | The Company uses the specific identification method to determine the cost basis of a debt security sold and to reclassify amounts from accumulated other comprehensive loss for such securities. Marketable Securities The Company reports its equity securities and available for sale debt securities at fair value, based on quoted market prices (Level 1 for the common stock and investment funds, Level 2 for the unsecured bonds and Level 3 for investments in mortgage backed securities, as defined by the FASB standard for fair value measurements as discussed later in Note 2). Any unrealized gain or loss in debt securities classified as available for sale is recorded as other comprehensive income.
Notes Receivable | Notes Receivable Notes receivable relate to real estate financing arrangements including mezzanine and bridge loans and are secured by real estate. Interest is recognized over the life of the note as interest income. Each note is analyzed to determine if it is impaired. A note is impaired if it is probable that the Company will not collect all contractually due principal and interest. The Company does not accrue interest when a note is considered impaired and an allowance is recorded for any principal and previously accrued interest that are not believed to be collectible. All cash receipts on impaired notes are applied to reduce the principal amount of such notes until the principal has been recovered and, thereafter, are recognized as interest income.
Capitalization Policy | Capitalization Policy The Company capitalizes all direct and certain indirect costs, including interest, real estate taxes and insurance, incurred during development and redevelopment activities. Interest is capitalized on real estate assets that require a period of time to get them ready for their intended use. The amount of interest capitalized is based upon the average amount of accumulated development expenditures during the reporting period. Included in capitalized costs are management’s estimates of the direct and incremental personnel costs and indirect project costs associated with the Company's development and redevelopment activities. Indirect project costs consist primarily of personnel costs associated with construction administration and development, including accounting, legal fees, and various corporate and community onsite costs that clearly relate to projects under development. Those costs as well as capitalized development and redevelopment fees totaled $18.6 million, $18.8 million and $16.4 million for the years ended December 31, 2018, 2017 and 2016, respectively, most of which relates to development projects. The Company capitalizes leasing costs associated with the lease-up of development communities and amortizes the costs over the life of the leases.
Fair Value of Financial Instruments | Fair Value of Financial Instruments The Company values its financial instruments based on the fair value hierarchy of valuation techniques described in the FASB’s accounting standard for fair value measurements. Level 1 inputs are unadjusted, quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities at the measurement date. Level 2 inputs include quoted prices for similar assets and liabilities in active markets and inputs other than quoted prices observable for the asset or liability. Level 3 inputs are unobservable inputs for the asset or liability. The Company uses Level 1 inputs for the fair values of its cash equivalents and its marketable securities except for unsecured bonds and mortgage backed securities. The Company uses Level 2 inputs for its investments in unsecured bonds, notes receivable, notes payable, and derivative assets/liabilities. These inputs include interest rates for similar financial instruments. The Company’s valuation methodology for derivatives is described in Note 9. The Company uses Level 3 inputs to estimate the fair value of its mortgage backed securities. The Company’s assessment of the significance of a particular input to the fair value measurement in its entirety requires judgment, and considers factors specific to the asset or liability. Management believes that the carrying amounts of the outstanding balances under its lines of credit, and notes and other receivables approximate fair value as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, because interest rates, yields and other terms for these instruments are consistent with yields and other terms currently available for similar instruments. Management has estimated that the fair value of fixed rate debt with a carrying value of $5.0 billion and $4.9 billion at December 31, 2018 and 2017, respectively, to be $5.0 billion at both December 31, 2018 and 2017. Management has estimated the fair value of the Company’s $619.6 million and $799.2 million of variable rate debt at December 31, 2018 and 2017, respectively, to be $615.2 million and $793.9 million based on the terms of existing mortgage notes payable, unsecured debt, and variable rate demand notes compared to those available in the marketplace. Management believes that the carrying amounts of cash and cash equivalents, restricted cash, accounts payable and accrued liabilities, construction payables, other liabilities and dividends payable approximate fair value as of December 31, 2018 and 2017 due to the short-term maturity of these instruments. Marketable securities, except mortgage backed securities, and derivatives are carried at fair value as of December 31, 2018 and 2017. At December 31, 2018 and 2017, the Company’s investments in mortgage backed securities had a carrying value of $127.2 million and $109.5 million, respectively. The Company estimated the fair value of investment in mortgage backed securities at December 31, 2018 and 2017 to be approximately $129.5 million and $120.7 million, respectively. The Company determines the fair value of the mortgage backed securities based on unobservable inputs (Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy) considering the assumptions that market participants would make in valuing these securities. Assumptions such as estimated default rates and discount rates are used to determine expected, discounted cash flows to estimate the fair value.
Interest Rate Protection, Swap, and Forward Contracts | nterest Rate Protection, Swap, and Forward Contracts The Company uses interest rate swaps, interest rate caps, and total return swap contracts to manage interest rate risks. The Company’s objective in using derivatives is to add stability to interest expense and to manage its exposure to interest rate movements or other identified risks. To accomplish this objective, the Company primarily uses interest rate swaps and interest rate caps as part of its cash flow hedging strategy. The Company records all derivatives on its consolidated balance sheets at fair value. The accounting for changes in the fair value of derivatives depends on the intended use of the derivative and the resulting designation. Derivatives used to hedge the exposure to changes in the fair value of an asset, liability, or firm commitment attributable to a particular risk, such as interest rate risk, are considered fair value hedges. Derivatives used to hedge the exposure to variability in expected future cash flows, or other types of forecasted transactions, are considered cash flow hedges. For derivatives designated for accounting purposes as fair value hedges, changes in the fair value of the derivative and the hedged item related to the hedged risk are recognized in earnings. For derivatives designated for accounting purposes as cash flow hedges, the effective portion of changes in the fair value of the derivative is initially reported in other comprehensive income (outside of earnings) and subsequently reclassified to earnings when the hedged transaction affects earnings, and the ineffective portion of changes in the fair value of the derivative is recognized directly in earnings. The Company assesses the initial and ongoing effectiveness of each hedging relationship by comparing the changes in fair value or cash flows of the derivative hedging instrument with the changes in fair value or cash flows of the designated hedged item or transaction. For derivatives not designated for accounting purposes as cash flow hedges, changes in fair value are recognized in earnings. All of the Company’s interest rate swaps are considered cash flow hedges.
Income Taxes | Income Taxes Generally in any year in which Essex qualifies as a real estate investment trust ("REIT") under the Internal Revenue Code (the "IRC"), it is not subject to federal income tax on that portion of its income that it distributes to stockholders. No provision for federal income taxes, other than the taxable REIT subsidiaries discussed below, has been made in the accompanying consolidated financial statements for each of the years in the three-year period ended December 31, 2018 as Essex has elected to be and believes it qualifies under the IRC as a REIT and has made distributions during the periods in amounts to preclude Essex from paying federal income tax. In order to maintain compliance with REIT tax rules, the Company utilizes taxable REIT subsidiaries for various revenue generating or investment activities. The taxable REIT subsidiaries are consolidated by the Company. In general, the activities and tax related provisions, assets and liabilities are not material. In 2016, a taxable REIT subsidiary sold two properties that it had acquired in 2007, resulting in the Company's recognition of a deferred income tax expense of approximately $4.4 million. On December 22, 2017 the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act ("Tax Act") was signed into law, which reduced the federal income tax rate from 35% to 21% effective January 1, 2018. As a result of the Tax Act, the Company remeasured its net deferred tax liabilities at December 31, 2017, accordingly a net tax benefit of $1.5 million was recorded. As a partnership, the Operating Partnership is not subject to federal or state income taxes, except that in order to maintain Essex's compliance with REIT tax rules that are applicable to Essex, the Operating Partnership utilizes taxable REIT subsidiaries for various revenue generating or investment activities. The taxable REIT subsidiaries are consolidated by the Operating Partnership.
Equity-based Compensation | Equity-based Compensation The cost of share and unit based compensation awards is measured at the grant date based on the estimated fair value of the awards. The estimated fair value of stock options and restricted stock granted by the Company are being amortized over the vesting period. The estimated grant date fair values of the long term incentive plan units (discussed in Note 13) are being amortized over the expected service periods.
Changes in Accumulated Other Comprehensive Loss, by Component | Amounts reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive loss in connection with derivatives are recorded in interest expense on the consolidated statements of income. Realized gains and losses on available for sale debt securities are included in interest and other income on the consolidated statements of income and comprehensive income.
Accounting Estimates | Accounting Estimates The preparation of consolidated financial statements, in accordance with U.S. GAAP, requires the Company to make estimates and judgments that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses and related disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities. On an on-going basis, the Company evaluates its estimates, including those related to acquiring, developing and assessing the carrying values of its real estate portfolio, its investments in and advances to joint ventures and affiliates, and its notes receivable. The Company bases its estimates on historical experience, current market conditions, and on various other assumptions that are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances. Actual results may vary from those estimates and those estimates could be different under different assumptions or conditions.
Variable Interest Entities | Variable Interest Entities In accordance with accounting standards for consolidation of VIEs, the Company consolidates the Operating Partnership and 16 DownREIT limited partnerships (comprising eight communities), and eight co-investments as of December 31, 2018. The Company consolidates these entities because it is deemed the primary beneficiary. The Company has no assets or liabilities other than its investment in the Operating Partnership. The consolidated total assets and liabilities related to the eight consolidated co-investments and 16 DownREIT limited partnerships, net of intercompany eliminations, were approximately $849.8 million and $261.7 million, respectively, as of December 31, 2018, and $837.7 million and $265.5 million, respectively, as of December 31, 2017. Noncontrolling interests in these entities were $64.5 million and $66.7 million as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, respectively. The Company's financial risk in each VIE is limited to its equity investment in the VIE. The DownREIT VIEs collectively own eight apartment communities in which Essex Management Company ("EMC") is the general partner, the Operating Partnership is a special limited partner, and the other limited partners were granted rights of redemption for their interests. Such limited partners can request to be redeemed and the Company, subject to certain restrictions, can elect to redeem their rights for cash or by issuing shares of its common stock on a one share per unit basis. Conversion values will be based on the market value of the Company's common stock at the time of redemption multiplied by the number of units stipulated under various arrangements, as noted above. The other limited partners receive distributions based on the Company's current dividend rate times the number of units held. Total DownREIT limited partnership units outstanding were 912,269 and 917,593 as of December 31, 2018 and 2017 respectively, and the redemption value of the units, based on the closing price of the Company’s common stock totaled approximately $223.7 million and $221.5 million, as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, respectively. The carrying value of redeemable noncontrolling interest in the accompanying balance sheets was $35.5 million and $39.2 million as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, respectively. Of these amounts, $14.5 million and $13.6 million as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, respectively, represent units of limited partners' interests in DownREIT VIEs as to which it is outside of the Company’s control to redeem the DownREIT limited partnership units with Company common stock and may potentially be redeemed for cash, and are presented at either their redemption value or historical cost, depending on the limited partner's right to redeem their units as of the balance sheet date. The carrying value of DownREIT limited partnership units as to which it is within the control of the Company to redeem the units with its common stock was $32.4 million as of both December 31, 2018 and 2017, and is classified within noncontrolling interests in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets. Interest holders in VIEs consolidated by the Company are allocated a priority of net income equal to the cash payments made to those interest holders or distributions from cash flow. The remaining results of operations are generally allocated to the Company.

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