(3) Investments

Available-for-sale Securities. The period-end cost or amortized cost, gross unrealized gains and losses, and fair value of available-for-sale fixed-maturity and equity securities follow:

	September 30, 2016
	Cost or amortized cost		Gross unrealized gains		Gross unrealized losses			Fair value
	(In thousands)
Securities available-for-sale, carried at fair value:
Fixed-maturity securities:
U.S. government and agencies	$	15,515	$	547	$	(1	)	$	16,061
Foreign government		121,993		9,843		(106	)		131,730
States and political subdivisions		43,326		3,167		(34	)		46,459
Corporates		1,246,969		78,951		(2,840	)		1,323,080
Residential mortgage-backed securities		78,549		6,836		(107	)		85,278
Commercial mortgage-backed securities		104,471		4,355		(51	)		108,775
Other asset-backed securities		49,524		352		(85	)		49,791
Total fixed-maturity securities⁽¹⁾		1,660,347		104,051		(3,224	)		1,761,174
Equity securities		37,966		10,147		(574	)		47,539
Total fixed-maturity and equity securities	$	1,698,313	$	114,198	$	(3,798	)	$	1,808,713

⁽¹⁾	Includes approximately $0.1 million of other-than-temporary impairment (“OTTI”) losses related to corporates and mortgage- and asset-backed securities recognized in accumulated other comprehensive income.

	December 31, 2015
	Cost or amortized cost		Gross unrealized gains		Gross unrealized losses			Fair value
	(In thousands)
Securities available-for-sale, carried at fair value:
Fixed-maturity securities:
U.S. government and agencies	$	20,233	$	448	$	(22	)	$	20,659
Foreign government		114,656		7,082		(1,522	)		120,216
States and political subdivisions		38,995		2,111		(541	)		40,565
Corporates		1,276,965		49,008		(24,211	)		1,301,762
Residential mortgage-backed securities		94,532		6,814		(121	)		101,225
Commercial mortgage-backed securities		97,666		2,875		(555	)		99,986
Other asset-backed securities		46,996		129		(79	)		47,046
Total fixed-maturity securities⁽¹⁾		1,690,043		68,467		(27,051	)		1,731,459
Equity securities		39,969		8,252		(382	)		47,839
Total fixed-maturity and equity securities	$	1,730,012	$	76,719	$	(27,433	)	$	1,779,298

⁽¹⁾	Includes approximately $0.1 million of OTTI related to corporates and mortgage- and asset-backed securities recognized in accumulated other comprehensive income.

All of our available-for-sale mortgage- and asset-backed securities represent variable interests in variable interest entities ("VIEs"). We are not the primary beneficiary of these VIEs because we do not have the power to direct the activities that most significantly impact the entities’ economic performance. The maximum exposure to loss as a result of our involvement in these VIEs equals the carrying value of the securities.

The scheduled maturity distribution of the available-for-sale fixed-maturity portfolio at September 30, 2016 follows:

	Amortized cost		Fair value
	(In thousands)
Due in one year or less	$	94,127	$	95,946
Due after one year through five years		690,909		734,979
Due after five years through 10 years		594,927		632,004
Due after 10 years		47,840		54,401
		1,427,803		1,517,330
Mortgage-and asset-backed securities		232,544		243,844
Total fixed-maturity securities	$	1,660,347	$	1,761,174

Expected maturities may differ from scheduled contractual maturities because issuers of securities may have the right to call or prepay obligations with or without call or prepayment penalties.

Unrealized Gains and Losses on Investments. The net effect on stockholders’ equity of unrealized gains and losses on available-for-sale investments was as follows:

	September 30, 2016			December 31, 2015
	(In thousands)
Net unrealized investment gains including OTTI:
Fixed-maturity and equity securities	$	110,400		$	49,286
OTTI		103			109
Net unrealized investment gains excluding OTTI		110,503			49,395
Deferred income taxes		(38,676	)		(17,288	)
Net unrealized investment gains excluding OTTI, net of tax	$	71,827		$	32,107

Trading Securities. We maintain a portfolio mostly of fixed-maturity securities that are classified as trading securities. The carrying values of the fixed-maturity securities classified as trading securities were approximately $12.3 million and $5.4 million as of September 30, 2016 and December 31, 2015, respectively.

Held-to-maturity Security. Concurrent with the execution of the Vidalia Re Coinsurance Agreement, Vidalia Re entered into a Surplus Note Purchase Agreement (the "Surplus Note Purchase Agreement") with Hannover Life Reassurance Company of America and certain of its affiliates (collectively, “Hannover Re”) and a newly formed limited liability company (the "LLC") owned by a third party service provider. Under the Surplus Note Purchase Agreement, Vidalia Re issued a surplus note (the “Surplus Note”) to the LLC in exchange for a credit enhanced note from the LLC with an equal principal amount (the “LLC Note”). The principal amount of both the LLC Note and the Surplus Note will fluctuate over time to coincide with the amount of reserves contractually supported under the Vidalia Re Coinsurance Agreement. Both the LLC Note and the Surplus Note mature on December 31, 2029 and bear interest at an annual interest rate of 4.50%. The LLC Note is guaranteed by Hannover Re through a credit enhancement feature in exchange for a fee, which is reflected in interest expense on our unaudited condensed consolidated statements of income.

The LLC is a variable interest entity as its owner does not have an equity investment at risk that is sufficient to permit the LLC to finance its activities without Vidalia Re or Hannover Re. The Parent Company, Primerica Life, and Vidalia Re share the power to direct the activities of the LLC with Hannover Re, but do not have the obligation to absorb losses or the right to receive any residual returns related to the LLC’s primary risks or sources of variability. Through the credit enhancement feature, Hannover Re is the ultimate risk taker in this transaction and bears the obligation to absorb the LLC’s losses in the event of a Surplus Note default in exchange for the fee. Accordingly, the Company is not the primary beneficiary of the LLC and does not consolidate the LLC within its consolidated financial statements.

The LLC Note is classified as a held-to-maturity debt security in the Company’s invested asset portfolio as we have the positive intent and ability to hold the security until maturity. As of September 30, 2016, the LLC Note, which was rated A+ by Fitch Ratings, had an estimated unrealized holding gain of $46.8 million based on its amortized cost and estimated fair value, which is derived using the valuation techniques described in Note 4 (Fair Value of Financial Instruments).

See Note 6 (Debt) for more information on the Surplus Note.

Investments on Deposit with Governmental Authorities. As required by law, we have investments on deposit with governmental authorities and banks for the protection of policyholders. The fair values of investments on deposit were approximately $19.4 million and $18.1 million as of September 30, 2016 and December 31, 2015, respectively.

Securities Lending Transactions. We participate in securities lending transactions with broker-dealers and other financial institutions to increase investment income with minimal risk. We require minimum collateral on securities loaned equal to 102% of the fair value of the loaned securities. We accept collateral in the form of securities, which we are not able to sell or encumber, and to the extent the collateral declines in value below 100%, we require additional collateral from the borrower. Any securities collateral received is not reflected on our unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets. We also accept collateral in the form of cash, all of which we reinvest. For loans involving unrestricted cash collateral, the collateral is reported as an asset with a corresponding liability representing our obligation to return the collateral. We continue to carry the loaned securities as invested assets on our unaudited condensed consolidated balance sheets during the terms of the loans, and we do not report them as sales. Cash collateral received and reinvested was approximately $95.8 million and $71.5 million as of September 30, 2016 and December 31, 2015, respectively.

Investment Income. The components of net investment income were as follows:

	Three months ended September 30,						Nine months ended September 30,
	2016			2015			2016			2015
	(In thousands)
Fixed-maturity securities (available-for-sale)	$	18,578		$	18,786		$	56,204		$	58,132
Fixed-maturity security (held-to-maturity)		4,957			3,772			13,716			8,954
Equity securities		505			514			1,527			1,533
Policy loans and other invested assets		318			354			998			1,049
Cash and cash equivalents		148			51			497			141
Market return on deposit asset underlying 10% coinsurance agreement		1,058			220			5,443			1,776
Gross investment income		25,564			23,697			78,385			71,585
Investment expenses		(1,208	)		(1,210	)		(3,643	)		(3,667	)
Investment income net of investment expenses		24,356			22,487			74,742			67,918
Interest expense on surplus note		(4,957	)		(3,772	)		(13,716	)		(8,954	)
Net investment income	$	19,399		$	18,715		$	61,026		$	58,964

The components of net realized investment gains (losses) as well as details on gross realized investment gains and losses and proceeds from sales or other redemptions were as follows:

	Three months ended September 30,						Nine months ended September 30,
	2016			2015			2016			2015
	(In thousands)
Net realized investment gains (losses):
Gross gains from sales	$	637		$	1,209		$	6,322		$	4,610
Gross losses from sales		(192	)		(26	)		(714	)		(285	)
Other-than-temporary impairment losses		(478	)		(1,564	)		(3,308	)		(2,433	)
Gains (losses) from bifurcated options		(2	)		122			323			(269	)
Net realized investment gains (losses)	$	(35	)	$	(259	)	$	2,623		$	1,623

Other-Than-Temporary Impairment. We conduct a review each quarter to identify and evaluate impaired investments that have indications of possible OTTI. An investment in a debt or equity security is impaired if its fair value falls below its cost. Factors considered in determining whether an unrealized loss is temporary include the length of time and extent to which fair value has been below cost, the financial condition and near-term prospects for the issue, and our ability and intent to hold the investment for a period of time sufficient to allow for any anticipated recovery, which may be maturity for fixed-maturity securities or within a reasonable period of time for equity securities. For additional information, see Note 4 (Investments) to the consolidated financial statements in our 2015 Annual Report.

Available-for-sale fixed-maturity and equity securities with a cost basis in excess of their fair values were approximately $152.4 million and $626.0 million as of September 30, 2016 and December 31, 2015, respectively.

The following tables summarize, for all available-for-sale securities in an unrealized loss position, the aggregate fair value and the gross unrealized loss by length of time such securities have continuously been in an unrealized loss position:

	September 30, 2016
	Less than 12 months							12 months or longer
	Fair value		Unrealized losses			Number of securities		Fair value		Unrealized losses			Number of securities
	(Dollars in thousands)
Fixed-maturity securities:
U.S. government and agencies	$	1,729	$	(1	)		1	$	-	$	-			-
Foreign government		3,398		(19	)		2		3,134		(87	)		3
States and political subdivisions		2,844		(34	)		4		-		-			-
Corporates		31,616		(321	)		29		58,781		(2,519	)		65
Residential mortgage-backed securities		2,451		(39	)		5		4,515		(68	)		8
Commercial mortgage-backed securities		11,873		(18	)		11		7,136		(33	)		10
Other asset-backed securities		11,755		(53	)		14		4,108		(32	)		7
Total fixed-maturity securities		65,666		(485	)				77,674		(2,739	)
Equity securities		1,752		(123	)		11		3,500		(451	)		9
Total fixed-maturity and equity securities	$	67,418	$	(608	)			$	81,174	$	(3,190	)

	December 31, 2015
	Less than 12 months							12 months or longer
	Fair value		Unrealized losses			Number of securities		Fair value		Unrealized losses			Number of securities
	(Dollars in thousands)
Fixed-maturity securities:
U.S. government and agencies	$	13,651	$	(22	)		7	$	-	$	-			-
Foreign government		23,572		(829	)		20		2,396		(693	)		3
States and political subdivisions		2,729		(44	)		6		878		(497	)		2
Corporates		413,131		(17,481	)		393		34,624		(6,730	)		54
Residential mortgage-backed securities		9,681		(61	)		9		4,762		(60	)		7
Commercial mortgage-backed securities		56,216		(493	)		49		3,199		(62	)		6
Other asset-backed securities		26,611		(77	)		23		260		(2	)		2
Total fixed-maturity securities		545,591		(19,007	)				46,119		(8,044	)
Equity securities		3,652		(287	)		17		3,209		(95	)		8
Total fixed-maturity and equity securities	$	549,243	$	(19,294	)			$	49,328	$	(8,139	)

The amortized cost and fair value of available-for-sale fixed-maturity securities in default were as follows:

	September 30, 2016				December 31, 2015
	Amortized cost		Fair value		Amortized cost		Fair value
	(In thousands)
Fixed-maturity securities in default	$	5	$	93	$	138	$	262

Impairment charges recognized in earnings on available-for-sale securities were as follows:

	Three months ended September 30,				Nine months ended September 30,
	2016		2015		2016		2015
	(In thousands)
Impairments on fixed-maturity securities not in default	$	466	$	1,287	$	3,145	$	2,075
Impairments on fixed-maturity securities in default		2		2		121		7
Impairments on equity securities		10		275		42		351
Total impairment charges	$	478	$	1,564	$	3,308	$	2,433

The securities noted above were considered to be other-than-temporarily impaired due to: our intent to sell them; adverse credit events, such as news of an impending filing for bankruptcy; analyses of the issuer’s most recent financial statements or other information in which liquidity deficiencies, significant losses and large declines in capitalization were evident; or analyses of rating agency information for issuances with severe ratings downgrades that indicated a significant increase in the possibility of default. We also recognized impairment losses related to invested assets held at the Parent company that we intended to sell to fund share repurchases, as well as credit impairments on certain other investments.

As of September 30, 2016, the unrealized losses on our available-for-sale invested asset portfolio were largely caused by interest rate sensitivity and changes in credit spreads. We believe that fluctuations caused by movements in interest rates and credit spreads have little bearing on the recoverability of our investments. We do not consider these investments to be other-than-temporarily impaired because we have the ability to hold these investments until maturity or a market price recovery, and we have no present intention to dispose of them.

Net impairment losses recognized in earnings for available-for-sale securities were as follows:

	Three months ended September 30,				Nine months ended September 30,
	2016		2015		2016		2015
	(In thousands)
Total impairment losses related to securities which the Company does not intend to sell or more-likely-than-not will not be required to sell:
Total OTTI losses recognized	$	445	$	150	$	1,374	$	251
Less portion of OTTI loss recognized in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss)		-		-		-		-
Net impairment losses recognized in earnings for securities which the Company does not intend to sell or more-likely-than-not will not be required to sell before recovery		445		150		1,374		251
OTTI losses recognized in earnings for securities which the Company intends to sell or more-likely-than-not will be required to sell before recovery		33		1,414		1,934		2,182
Net impairment losses recognized in earnings	$	478	$	1,564	$	3,308	$	2,433

The rollforward of the OTTI recognized in net income for all fixed-maturity securities still held follows:

	Three months ended September 30,						Nine months ended September 30,
	2016			2015			2016			2015
	(In thousands)
Cumulative OTTI recognized in net income for securities still held, beginning of period	$	7,489		$	7,701		$	11,856		$	9,550
Additions for OTTI securities where no OTTI were recognized prior to the beginning of the period		451			336			1,682			403
Additions for OTTI securities where OTTI have been recognized prior to the beginning of the period		17			953			1,584			1,679
Reductions due to sales, maturities, calls, amortization or increases in cash flows expected to be collected over the remaining life of credit impaired securities		(640	)		(138	)		(6,134	)		(1,503	)
Reductions for exchanges of securities previously impaired		(112	)		-			(1,783	)		(1,277	)
Cumulative OTTI recognized in net income for securities still held, end of period	$	7,205		$	8,852		$	7,205		$	8,852

As of September 30, 2016, no impairment losses have been recognized on the LLC Note held-to-maturity security.

Derivatives. Embedded conversion options associated with fixed-maturity securities are bifurcated from the fixed-maturity security host contracts and separately recognized as equity securities. The change in fair value of these bifurcated conversion options is reflected in realized investment gains (losses), including OTTI losses. As of September 30, 2016 and December 31, 2015, the fair value of these bifurcated options was approximately $4.6 million and $5.4 million, respectively.

We have a deferred loss related to closed forward contracts, which were settled several years ago, that were used to mitigate our exposure to foreign currency exchange rates that resulted from the net investment in our Canadian operations. The amount of deferred loss included in accumulated other comprehensive income was approximately $26.4 million as of September 30, 2016 and December 31, 2015. While we have no current intention to do so, these deferred losses will not be recognized until such time as we sell or substantially liquidate our Canadian operations.