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Operations and Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies) | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2015
Organization, Consolidation and Presentation of Financial Statements [Abstract] |
Principles of Consolidation | Principles of Consolidation The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Simpson Manufacturing Co., Inc. and its subsidiaries. Investments in 50% or less owned entities are accounted for using either cost or the equity method. The Company consolidates all variable interest entities (VIEs) where it is the primary beneficiary. There were no VIEs as of December 31, 2015 or 2014. All significant intercompany transactions have been eliminated.
Use of Estimates | Use of Estimates The preparation of consolidated financial statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America ("GAAP") requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the Consolidated Financial Statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates.
Revenue Recognition | Revenue Recognition The Company recognizes revenue when the earnings process is complete, net of applicable provision for discounts, returns and incentives, whether actual or estimated based on the Company’s experience. This generally occurs when products are shipped to the customer in accordance with the sales agreement or purchase order, ownership and risk of loss pass to the customer, collectability is reasonably assured and pricing is fixed or determinable. The Company’s general shipping terms are F.O.B. shipping point, where title is transferred and revenue is recognized when the products are shipped to customers. When the Company sells F.O.B. destination point, title is transferred and the Company recognizes revenue on delivery or customer acceptance, depending on terms of the sales agreement. Service sales, representing after-market repair and maintenance, engineering activities, software license sales and service and lease income, though significantly less than 1% of net sales and not material to the Consolidated Financial Statements, are recognized as the services are completed or the software products and services are delivered. If actual costs of sales returns, incentives and discounts were to significantly exceed the recorded estimated allowances, the Company’s sales would be adversely affected.
Sales Incentive and Advertising Allowances | Sales Incentive and Advertising Allowances The Company records estimated reductions to revenues for sales incentives, primarily rebates for volume discounts, and allowances for co-operative advertising.
Allowances for Sales Discounts | Allowances for Sales Discounts The Company records estimated reductions to revenues for discounts taken on early payment of invoices by its customers.
Cash Equivalents | Cash Equivalents The Company considers all highly liquid investments with an original or remaining maturity of three months or less at the time of purchase to be cash equivalents.
Allowance For Doubtful Accounts | Allowance for Doubtful Accounts The Company assesses the collectability of specific customer accounts that would be considered doubtful based on the customer’s financial condition, payment history, credit rating and other factors that the Company considers relevant, or accounts that the Company assigns for collection. The Company reserves for the portion of those outstanding balances that the Company believes it is not likely to collect based on historical collection experience. The Company also reserves 100% of the amounts that it deems uncollectable due to a customer’s deteriorating financial condition or bankruptcy. If the financial condition of the Company’s customers were to deteriorate, resulting in probable inability to make payments, additional allowances may be required.
Inventory Valuation | Inventory Valuation Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value (market). Cost includes all costs incurred in bringing each product to its present location and condition, as follows:
• | Raw materials and purchased finished goods for resale — principally valued at cost determined on a weighted average basis; and
• | In-process products and finished goods — cost of direct materials and labor plus attributable overhead based on a normal level of activity.
The Company applies net realizable value and obsolescence to the gross value of the inventory. The Company estimates net realizable value based on estimated selling price less further costs to completion and disposal. The Company impairs slow-moving products by comparing inventories on hand to projected demand. If on-hand supply of a product exceeds projected demand or if the Company believes the product is no longer marketable, the product is considered obsolete inventory. The Company revalues obsolete inventory to its net realizable value. The Company has consistently applied this methodology. The Company believes that this approach is prudent and makes suitable impairments for slow-moving and obsolete inventory. When impairments are established, a new cost basis of the inventory is created. Unexpected change in market demand, building codes or buyer preferences could reduce the rate of inventory turnover and require the Company to recognize more obsolete inventory.
Warranties and Recalls | Warranties and recalls The Company provides product warranties for specific product lines and records estimated recall expenses in the period in which the recall occurs, none of which has been material to the Consolidated Financial Statements. In a limited number of circumstances, the Company may also agree to indemnify customers against legal claims made against those customers by the end users of the Company’s products. Historically, payments made by the Company, if any, under such agreements have not had a material effect on the Company’s consolidated results of operations, cash flows or financial position
Fair Value of Financial Instruments | Fair Value of Financial Instruments The “Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures” topic of the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) Accounting Standards Codification™ (“ASC”) establishes a valuation hierarchy for disclosure of the inputs used to measure fair value. This hierarchy prioritizes the inputs into three broad levels as follows: Level 1 inputs are quoted prices (unadjusted) in active markets for identical assets or liabilities; Level 2 inputs are quoted prices for similar assets and liabilities in active markets or inputs that are observable for the asset or liability, either directly or indirectly through market corroboration, for substantially the full term of the financial instrument; Level 3 inputs are unobservable inputs based on the Company’s assumptions used to measure assets and liabilities at fair value. A financial asset’s or liability’s classification within the hierarchy is determined based on the lowest level input that is significant to the fair value measurement. As of December 31, 2015, the Company’s investments consisted of only United States Treasury securities and money market funds, which are the Company’s primary financial instruments, maintained in cash equivalents and carried at cost, approximating fair value, based on Level 1 inputs. The balance of the Company’s primary financial instruments was as follows:
(in thousands) | At December 31,
| 2015 | 2014
United States Treasury securities and money market funds | $ | 76,047 |  | $ | 99,024 |
The carrying amounts of trade accounts receivable, accounts payable and accrued liabilities approximate fair value due to the short-term nature of these instruments. The fair value of the Company’s contingent consideration related to acquisitions is classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy as it is based on unobserved inputs and assumptions. In 2014, the fair value of the contingent consideration related to the acquisition of Bierbach GmbH & Co. KG ("Bierbach"), a Germany company, was decreased from $0.8 million to $0.2 million as a result of not retaining Bierbach's historical customers and increased competition.
Property, Plant and Equipment including Depreciation and Amortization | Property, Plant and Equipment Property, plant and equipment are carried at cost. Major renewals and betterments are capitalized. Maintenance and repairs are expensed on a current basis. When assets are sold or retired, their costs and accumulated depreciation are removed from the accounts, and the resulting gains or losses are reflected in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. The “Intangibles—Goodwill and Other” topic of the FASB ASC provides guidance on capitalization of the costs incurred for computer software developed or obtained for internal use. The Company capitalizes qualified external costs and internal costs related to the purchase and implementation of software projects used for business operations and engineering design activities. Capitalized software costs primarily include purchased software and external consulting fees. Capitalized software projects are amortized over the estimated useful lives of the software. Depreciation and Amortization Depreciation of software, machinery and equipment is provided using accelerated methods over the following estimated useful lives:
Software | 3 to 5 years
Machinery and equipment | 3 to 10 years
Buildings and site improvements are depreciated using the straight-line method over their estimated useful lives, which range from 15 to 45 years. Leasehold improvements are amortized using the straight-line method over the shorter of the expected life or the remaining term of the lease. Amortization of purchased intangible assets with finite useful lives is computed using the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the assets.
In-Process Research and Development Assets | In-Process Research and Development Assets In-process research and development (“IPR&D”) assets represent capitalized incomplete research projects that the Company acquired through business combinations. Such assets are initially measured at their acquisition-date fair values and are required to be classified as indefinite-lived assets until the successful completion of the associated research and development efforts. During the development period after the date of acquisition, these assets will not be amortized until the research and development projects are completed and the resulting assets are ready for their intended use. The Company performs an impairment test annually and more frequently if events or changes in circumstances indicate it that is more likely than not that the asset is impaired. On successful completion of the research and development project the Company makes a determination about the then-remaining useful life and begins amortization.
Cost of Sales | Cost of Sales The types of costs included in cost of sales include material, labor, factory and tooling overhead, shipping, and freight costs. Major components of these expenses are material costs, such as steel, packaging and cartons, personnel costs, and facility costs, such as rent, depreciation and utilities, related to the production and distribution of the Company’s products. Inbound freight charges, purchasing and receiving costs, inspection costs, warehousing costs, internal transfer costs, and other costs of the Company’s distribution network are also included in cost of sales.
Tool and Die Costs | Tool and Die Costs Tool and die costs are included in product costs in the year incurred.
Shipping and Handling Fees and Costs | Shipping and Handling Fees and Costs The Company’s general shipping terms are F.O.B. shipping point. Shipping and handling fees and costs are included in revenues and product costs, as appropriate, in the year incurred.
Product and Software Research and Development Costs | Product and Software Research and Development Costs Product research and development costs, which are included in operating expenses and are charged against income as incurred, were $10.3 million, $11.2 million and $10.7 million in 2015, 2014, and 2013, respectively. The types of costs included as product research and development expenses are typically related to salaries and benefits, professional fees and supplies. In 2015, 2014 and 2013, the Company incurred software development expenses related to its expansion into the plated truss market and some of the software development costs were capitalized. See Note 5. The Company amortizes acquired patents over their remaining lives and performs periodic reviews for impairment. The cost of internally developed patents is expensed as incurred.
Selling Costs, General and Administrative Costs | General and Administrative Costs General and administrative costs include personnel, information technology related costs, facility costs such as rent, depreciation and utilities, professional services, amortization of intangibles and bad debt charges. Selling Costs Selling costs include expenses associated with selling, merchandising and marketing the Company’s products. Major components of these expenses are personnel, sales commissions, facility costs such as rent, depreciation and utilities, professional services, information technology costs, sales promotion, advertising, literature and trade shows.
Advertising Costs | Advertising Costs Advertising costs are included in selling expenses, are expensed when the advertising occurs, and were $6.4 million, $7.3 million and $7.0 million in 2015, 2014, and 2013, respectively.
Income Taxes | Income Taxes Income taxes are calculated using an asset and liability approach. The provision for income taxes includes federal, state and foreign taxes currently payable and deferred taxes, due to temporary differences between the financial statement and tax bases of assets and liabilities. In addition, future tax benefits are recognized to the extent that realization of such benefits is more likely than not.
Sales Taxes | Sales Taxes The Company presents taxes collected and remitted to governmental authorities on a net basis in the accompanying Consolidated Statements of Operations.
Foreign Currency Translation | Foreign Currency Translation The local currency is the functional currency of most of the Company’s operations in Europe, Canada, Asia, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Assets and liabilities denominated in foreign currencies are translated using the exchange rate on the balance sheet date. Revenues and expenses are translated using average exchange rates prevailing during the year. The translation adjustment resulting from this process is shown separately as a component of stockholders’ equity. Foreign currency transaction gains or losses are included in general and administrative expenses.
Costs Associated with Exit or Disposal Activities or Restructurings, Policy | Sales Office Closing During the first quarter of 2015, the Company committed to a plan to close its sales offices located in China, Thailand and Dubai ("Asia sales offices"), as well as to reduce its selling activities in Hong Kong, due to continued losses in the regions. As of December 31, 2015, Asia sales offices closures were substantially completed. As of December 31, 2015, the Company had recorded employee severance obligation expenses of $2.4 million and made corresponding payments totaling $2.1 million. Most of the severance obligation expenses were charged to operating expenses, with less than $0.6 million recorded to cost of sales. Long-lived assets, consisted mostly of office equipment and vehicles were fully amortized as of December 31, 2015, total accelerated depreciation expense of $0.2 million was recorded in operating expenses. All costs associated with the closures were reported in the Asia/Pacific segment. The following table provides a rollforward of the liability balance for these costs, as well as other non-employee costs associated with the sales office closing, as of December 31, 2015:
(in thousands) | Operating Leases Obligation | Employee Severance Obligation |  | Other Associated Costs |  | Total
Balance at January 1, 2015 | $ | — |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |
Charges | 751 |  | 2,422 |  |  | 481 |  |  | 2,903 |
Cash payments | (751 | ) | (2,121 | ) |  | (129 | ) |  | (2,250 | )
Balance at December 31, 2015 | $ | — |  | $ | 301 |  |  | $ | 352 |  |  | $ | 653 |
The remaining estimated additional severance expense, retention bonuses and professional fees of $0.3 million will be recorded as commitment requirements are met or services are performed. In addition, the remaining estimated future minimum lease obligation of $0.5 million will be charged to expense after the cease-use date, the date the Company ceases to use a lease property. The estimated costs disclosed are based on a number of assumptions, and actual results could differ materially. In December 2015, the Company had substantially completed the liquidation of its Asia sales offices, which included liquidating nearly all of its assets and settling most of its debts. As a result, the Company reclassified $0.2 million of its accumulated other comprehensive income, related to foreign exchange losses from its Asia sales offices, to its Consolidated Statement of Operations. This amount is classified as a loss on disposal of assets and was recorded in the Asia/Pacific segment.
Plant Closure | Plant Closure In December 2013, the Company had substantially completed the liquidation of its Irish subsidiary, which included liquidating nearly all of its assets and settling most of its debts. As a result, the Company reclassified $2.8 million of its accumulated other comprehensive income, related to foreign exchange losses from its Irish subsidiary, to its Consolidated Statement of Operations. This amount is classified as a loss on disposal of assets and was recorded in the Administrative & All Other segment.
Sale of Product Line | Sale of Product Line In December 2013, the Company sold its CarbonWrap product line to The DowAksa USA, LLC for $3.8 million. The CarbonWrap product line had assets of $2.0 million, consisting of $1.5 million in intangible assets and $0.5 million in goodwill. As part of the transaction, the Company also incurred severance costs of $0.5 million. As a result of this transaction the Company recognized a pre-tax gain of $1.4 million. Because the CarbonWrap assets constituted an integrated business in the United States reporting unit, a portion of the United States reporting unit’s goodwill was included in the carrying amount of the asset group disposed. The amount of goodwill from the United States reporting unit included in the CarbonWrap asset group was $0.5 million, which was proportionate to the fair value of the CarbonWrap asset group compared to the estimated fair value of the United States reporting unit. The Company continues to invest in related product lines, such as those acquired from Fox Industries, Inc. in 2011 and S&P Clever Reinforcement Company AG and S&P Clever International AG in 2012, both companies incorporated under the laws of Switzerland (collectively, “S&P Clever"). See Note 2.
Common Stock and Preferred Stock | Common Stock Subject to the rights of holders of any preferred stock that may be issued in the future, holders of common stock are entitled to receive such dividends, if any, as may be declared from time to time by the Company’s Board of Directors (the “Board”) out of legally available funds, and in the event of liquidation, dissolution or winding-up of the Company, to share ratably in all assets available for distribution. The holders of common stock have no preemptive or conversion rights. Subject to the rights of any preferred stock that may be issued in the future, the holders of common stock are entitled to one vote per share on any matter submitted to a vote of the stockholders, except that, subject to compliance with pre-meeting notice and other conditions pursuant to the Company’s Bylaws, stockholders may cumulate their votes in an election of directors, and each stockholder may give one candidate a number of votes equal to the number of directors to be elected multiplied by the number of shares held by such stockholder or may distribute such stockholder’s votes on the same principle among as many candidates as such stockholder thinks fit. A director is elected if the votes cast “for” such director’s election exceed the votes cast “against” such director’s election, except that, if a stockholder properly nominates a candidate for election to the Board, the candidates with the highest number of affirmative votes (up to the number of directors to be elected) are elected. There are no redemption or sinking fund provisions applicable to the common stock. In 1999, the Company declared a dividend distribution of one right per share of our common stock to purchase Series A Participating preferred stock (each, a "Right," or collectively, the "Rights"). The Rights will be exercisable, unless redeemed earlier by the Company, if a person or group acquires, or obtains the right to acquire, 15% or more of the outstanding shares of common stock or commences a tender or exchange offer that would result in it acquiring 15% or more of the outstanding shares of common stock, either event occurring without the prior consent of the Company. The amount of Series A Participating preferred stock that the holder of a Right is entitled to receive and the purchase price payable on exercise of a Right are both subject to adjustment. Any person or group that acquires 15% or more of the outstanding shares of common stock without the prior consent of the Company would not be entitled to this purchase. Any stockholder who held 25% or more of the Company’s common stock when the Rights were originally distributed would not be treated as having acquired 15% or more of the outstanding shares unless such stockholder’s ownership is increased to more than 40% of the outstanding shares. The Rights will expire on June 14, 2019, or they may be redeemed by the Company at one cent per Right prior to that date. The Rights do not have voting or dividend rights and, until they become exercisable, have no dilutive effect on the earnings of the Company. One million shares of the Company’s preferred stock have been designated Series A Participating preferred stock and reserved for issuance on exercise of the Rights. No event during 2015 made the Rights exercisable. Preferred Stock The Board has the authority to issue the authorized and unissued preferred stock in one or more series with such designations, rights and preferences as may be determined from time to time by the Board. Accordingly, the Board is empowered, without stockholder approval, to issue preferred stock with dividend, redemption, liquidation, conversion, voting or other rights that could adversely affect the voting power or other rights of the holders of the Company’s common stock.
Net Income per Common Share | Net Income per Common Share Basic net income per common share is computed based on the weighted average number of common shares outstanding. Potentially dilutive shares, using the treasury stock method, are included in the diluted per-share calculations for all periods when the effect of their inclusion is dilutive. The following shows a reconciliation of basic earnings per share (“EPS”) to diluted EPS:
| Year Ended December 31,
(in thousands, except per-share amounts) | 2015 |  | 2014 |  | 2013
Net income available to common stockholders | $ | 67,888 |  |  | $ | 63,531 |  |  | $ | 50,971 |
Basic weighted average shares outstanding | 48,952 |  |  | 48,977 |  |  | 48,521 |
Dilutive effect of potential common stock equivalents — stock options | 229 |  |  | 217 |  |  | 152 |
Diluted weighted average shares outstanding | 49,181 |  |  | 49,194 |  |  | 48,673 |
Net earnings per share: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Basic | $ | 1.39 |  |  | $ | 1.30 |  |  | $ | 1.05 |
Diluted | $ | 1.38 |  |  | $ | 1.29 |  |  | $ | 1.05 |
Potentially dilutive securities excluded from earnings per diluted share because their |  |  |  |  |
effect is anti-dilutive | — |  |  | — |  |  | — |
Anti-dilutive shares attributable to outstanding stock options were excluded from the calculation of diluted net income per share. The potential tax benefits derived from the amount of the average stock price for the period in excess of the grant date fair value of stock options, known as the windfall tax benefit, is added to the proceeds of stock option exercises under the treasury stock method for computing the amount of dilutive securities used to determine the outstanding shares for the calculation of diluted earnings per share.
Comprehensive Income (Loss) | Comprehensive Income or Loss Comprehensive income is defined as net income plus other comprehensive income or loss. Other comprehensive income or loss consists of changes in cumulative translation adjustments and changes in unamortized pension adjustments recorded directly in accumulated other comprehensive income within stockholders’ equity. The following shows the components of accumulated other comprehensive income or loss as of December 31, 2015 and 2014, respectively:
| Foreign Currency Translation |  | Pension Benefit |  | Total
(in thousands) |  |
Balance, January 1, 2013 | $ | 12,342 |  |  | $ | (243 | ) |  | $ | 12,099 |
Other comprehensive income before reclassification net of tax benefit (expense) of $29 and ($3), respectively | 3,147 |  |  | 46 |  |  | 3,193 |
Amounts reclassified from accumulative other comprehensive income, net of $0 tax | 2,794 |  |  | — |  |  | 2,794 |
Balance, December 31, 2013 | 18,283 |  |  | (197 | ) |  | 18,086 |
Other comprehensive loss net of tax benefit (expense) of ($63) and $67, respectively | (24,896 | ) |  | (370 | ) |  | (25,266 | )
Balance, December 31, 2014 | (6,613 | ) |  | (567 | ) |  | (7,180 | )
Other comprehensive loss net of tax benefit (expense) of ($57) and $82, respectively | (20,708 | ) |  | (457 | ) |  | (21,165 | )
Amounts reclassified from accumulative other comprehensive income, net of $0 tax | $ | (231 | ) |  |  |  | $ | (231 | )
Balance, December 31, 2015 | $ | (27,552 | ) |  | $ | (1,024 | ) |  | $ | (28,576 | )
The 2013 and 2015 translation adjustments activity included the realization of $2.8 million in cumulative currency translation adjustments related to the liquidation of the Irish subsidiary and $0.2 million in cumulative currency translation adjustments related to the liquidation of the Asia sales offices, both as a net loss on disposal of assets in the Consolidated Statements of Operations.
Concentration of Credit Risk | Concentration of Credit Risk Financial instruments that potentially subject the Company to concentrations of credit risk consist of cash in banks, short-term investments in United States Treasury securities, money market funds and trade accounts receivable. The Company maintains its cash in demand deposit and money market accounts held primarily at seventeen banks.
Accounting for Stock-Based Compensation | Accounting for Stock-Based Compensation With the approval of the Company’s stockholders on April 26, 2011, the Company adopted the Simpson Manufacturing Co., Inc. 2011 Incentive Plan (the “2011 Plan”). The 2011 Plan amended and restated in their entirety, and incorporated and superseded, both the Simpson Manufacturing Co., Inc. 1994 Stock Option Plan (the “1994 Plan”), which was principally for the Company’s employees, and the Simpson Manufacturing Co., Inc. 1995 Independent Director Stock Option Plan (the “1995 Plan”), which was for its independent directors. Awards previously granted under the 1994 Plan or the 1995 Plan will not be affected by the adoption of the 2011 Plan and will continue to be governed by the 1994 Plan or the 1995 Plan, respectively. Under the 1994 Plan, the Company could grant incentive stock options and non-qualified stock options, although the Company granted only non-qualified stock options under the 1994 Plan and the 1995 Plan. The Company generally granted options under each of the 1994 Plan and the 1995 Plan once each year. Options vest and expire according to terms established at the grant date. Stock options granted under the 1994 Plan typically vested evenly over the requisite service period of four years and have a term of seven years. Options granted under the 1995 Plan were fully vested on the date of grant. Shares of common stock issued on exercise of stock options under the 1994 Plan and the 1995 Plan are registered under the Securities Act of 1933. Under the 2011 Plan, the Company may grant incentive stock options, non-qualified stock options, restricted stock and restricted stock units, although the Company currently intends to award primarily restricted stock units and to a lesser extent, if at all, non-qualified stock options. The Company does not currently intend to award incentive stock options or restricted stock. Under the 2011 Plan, no more than 16.3 million shares of the Company’s common stock may be issued (including shares already sold) pursuant to all awards under the 2011 Plan, including on exercise of options previously granted under the 1994 Plan and the 1995 Plan. Shares of common stock to be issued pursuant to the 2011 Plan are registered under the Securities Act of 1933. The following table shows the Company’s stock-based compensation activity for the years ended December 31, 2015, 2014, and 2013, respectively:
| Years Ended December 31,
(in thousands) | 2015 |  | 2014 |  | 2013
Stock-based compensation expense recognized in operating expenses | $ | 11,212 |  |  | $ | 12,299 |  |  | $ | 12,053 |
Tax benefit of stock-based compensation expense in provision for income taxes | 3,987 |  |  | 4,384 |  |  | 4,225 |
Stock-based compensation expense, net of tax | $ | 7,225 |  |  | $ | 7,915 |  |  | $ | 7,828 |
Fair value of shares vested | $ | 10,997 |  |  | $ | 12,354 |  |  | $ | 12,090 |
Proceeds to the Company from the exercise of stock-based compensation | $ | 9,720 |  |  | $ | 4,582 |  |  | $ | 15,057 |
Tax benefit from exercise of stock-based compensation, including shortfall tax benefits | $ | (318 | ) |  | $ | (268 | ) |  | $ | (2,645 | )
| At December 31,
(in thousands) | 2015 |  | 2014 |  | 2013
Stock-based compensation cost capitalized in inventory | $ | 368 |  |  | $ | 559 |  |  | $ | 463 |
The stock-based compensation expense included in cost of sales, research and development and engineering expense, selling expense, or general and administrative expense depends on the job functions performed by the employees to whom the stock options were granted, or the restricted stock units were awarded. The assumptions used to calculate the fair value of options or restricted stock units are evaluated and revised, as necessary, to reflect market conditions and the Company’s experience.
Goodwill Impairment Testing | Goodwill Impairment Testing The Company tests goodwill for impairment at the reporting unit level on an annual basis (in the fourth quarter for the Company). The Company also reviews goodwill for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate the carrying value of an asset may not be recoverable. These events or circumstances could include a significant change in the business climate, legal factors, operating performance indicators, competition, or disposition or relocation of a significant portion of a reporting unit. The reporting unit level is generally one level below the operating segment and is at the country level except for the United States, Denmark, Australia, and S&P Clever reporting units. The Company has determined that the United States reporting unit includes four components: Northwest United States, Southwest United States, Northeast United States and Southeast United States (collectively, the “U.S. Components”). The Company aggregates the U.S. Components into a single reporting unit because management concluded that they are economically similar and that the goodwill is recoverable from the U.S. Components working in concert. The U.S. Components are economically similar because of a number of factors, including, selling similar products to shared customers and sharing assets and services such as intellectual property, manufacturing assets for certain products, research and development projects, manufacturing processes, management of inventory excesses and shortages and administrative services. These activities are managed centrally at the U.S. Components level and costs are allocated among the four U.S. Components. The Company determined that the Australia reporting unit includes three components: Australia, New Zealand and South Africa (collectively, the “AU Components”). The Company aggregates the AU Components into a single reporting unit because management concluded that they are economically similar and that the goodwill is recoverable from the AU Components working in concert. The AU Components are economically similar because of a number of factors, including that New Zealand and South Africa operate as extensions of their Australian parent company selling similar products and sharing assets and services such as intellectual property, manufacturing assets for certain products, management of inventory excesses and shortages and administrative services. These activities are managed centrally at the AU Components level and costs are allocated among the AU Components. The Company has determined that the S&P Clever reporting unit includes eight components: S&P Switzerland, S&P Poland, S&P Austria, S&P The Netherlands, S&P Portugal, S&P Germany, S&P France and S&P Nordic (collectively, the "S&P Components”). The Company aggregates the S&P Components into a single reporting unit because management concluded that they are economically similar and that the goodwill is recoverable from the S&P Components working in concert. The S&P Components are economically similar because of a number of factors, including sharing assets and services such as intellectual property, manufacturing assets for certain products, research and development projects, manufacturing processes, management of inventory excesses and shortages and administrative services. These activities are managed centrally at the S&P Components level and costs are allocated among the S&P Components. For certain reporting units, the Company may first assess qualitative factors related to the goodwill of the reporting unit to determine whether it is necessary to perform a two-step impairment test. If the Company judges that it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is greater than the carrying amount of the reporting unit, including goodwill, no further testing is required. If the Company judges that it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than the carrying amount of the reporting unit, including goodwill, management will perform a two-step impairment test on goodwill. In the first step ("Step 1"), the Company compares the fair value of the reporting unit to its carrying value. The fair value calculation uses the income approach (discounted cash flow method) and the market approach, equally weighted. If the Company judges that the carrying value of the net assets assigned to the reporting unit, including goodwill, exceeds the fair value of the reporting unit, a second step of the impairment test must be performed to determine the implied fair value of the reporting unit’s goodwill. If the Company judges that the carrying value of a reporting unit’s goodwill exceeds its implied fair value, the Company would record an impairment charge equal to the difference between the implied fair value of the goodwill and the carrying value. Determining the fair value of a reporting unit or an indefinite-lived purchased intangible asset is a judgment involving significant estimates and assumptions. These estimates and assumptions include revenue growth rates, operating margins and working capital requirements used to calculate projected future cash flows, risk-adjusted discount rates, selected multiples, control premiums and future economic and market conditions (Level 3 fair value inputs). The Company bases its fair value estimates on assumptions that it believes to be reasonable, but that are unpredictable and inherently uncertain. Actual future results may differ from those estimates. Assumptions about a reporting unit’s operating performance in the first year of the discounted cash flow model used to determine whether or not the goodwill related to that reporting unit is impaired are derived from the Company’s budget. The fair value model considers such factors as macro-economic conditions, revenue and expense forecasts, product line changes, material, labor and overhead costs, tax rates, working capital levels and competitive environment. Future estimates, however derived, are inherently uncertain but the Company believes that this is the most appropriate source on which to base its fair value calculation. The Company uses these parameters only to provide a basis for the determination of whether or not the goodwill related to a reporting unit is impaired. No inference whatsoever should be drawn from these parameters about the Company’s future financial performance and they should not be taken as projections or guidance of any kind. The 2015, 2014 and 2013 annual testing of goodwill for impairment did not result in impairment charges. The impairment charge taken in the third quarter of 2014 was associated with assets in the Germany reporting unit acquired from Bierbach in 2013. See Note 2. The factors that led to the third quarter impairment were a failure to retain Bierbach's historical customers and increased competition factors, which led to the reduction in the contingent consideration liability related to the Bierbach acquisition, and resulted in management performing an impairment test to evaluate the recoverability of the Germany reporting unit's goodwill. The test resulted in the impairment of all of the reporting unit’s goodwill in the amount of $0.5 million. In connection with the impairment of the goodwill, the Company also reviewed associated long-lived assets in Germany, such as property and equipment and intangible assets, for recoverability by comparing the projected undiscounted net cash flows associated with those assets to their carrying values. No impairment of long-lived assets was required as a result of that review during the third quarter of 2014. The Denmark reporting unit passed Step 1 of the annual 2015 impairment test by a 9% margin indicating an estimated value greater than its net book value and was the only reporting unit with a fair value greater than net book value margin of less than 10%. The Denmark reporting unit is sensitive to management’s plans for retaining or replacing lost sales and operating margins. The Denmark reporting unit’s failure to meet management’s objectives could result in future impairment of some or all of the Denmark reporting unit’s goodwill, which was $6.4 million at December 31, 2015.
Amortizable Intangible Assets | Amortizable Intangible Assets The total gross carrying amount and accumulated amortization of intangible assets, most of which are or will be, subject to amortization at December 31, 2015, were $57.1 million and $29.4 million, respectively. The aggregate amount of amortization expense of intangible assets for the years ended December 31, 2015, 2014 and 2013 was $6.1 million, $7.2 million and $7.1 million, respectively. The changes in the carrying amounts of patents, unpatented technologies, customer relationships and non-compete agreements and other intangible assets subject to amortization as of December 31, 2014, and 2015 were as follows, respectively:
(in thousands) | Gross Carrying Amount |  | Accumulated Amortization |  | Net Carrying Amount
Patents |  |
Balance at January 1, 2014 | $ | 6,689 |  |  | $ | (5,988 | ) |  | $ | 701 |
Amortization | — |  |  | (506 | ) |  | (506 | )
Foreign exchange | (14 | ) |  | — |  |  | (14 | )
Removal of fully amortized assets | (4,917 | ) |  | 4,917 |  |  | — |
Balance, at December 31, 2014 | 1,758 |  |  | (1,577 | ) |  | 181 |
Acquisition | 1,062 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,062 |
Amortization |  |  |  | (102 | ) |  | (102 | )
Foreign exchange | (7 | ) |  | — |  |  | (7 | )
Removal of fully amortized assets | (1,300 | ) |  | 1,300 |  |  | — |
Balance at December 31, 2015 | $ | 1,513 |  |  | $ | (379 | ) |  | $ | 1,134 |
(in thousands) | Gross Carrying Amount |  | Accumulated Amortization |  | Net Carrying Amount
Unpatented Technology |  |
Balance at January 1, 2014 | $ | 18,977 |  |  | $ | (5,257 | ) |  | $ | 13,720 |
Amortization | — |  |  | (2,408 | ) |  | (2,408 | )
Reclassifications (2) | 5,299 |  |  | — |  |  | 5,299 |
Foreign exchange | (1,479 | ) |  | — |  |  | (1,479 | )
Balance, at December 31, 2014 | 22,797 |  |  | (7,665 | ) |  | 15,132 |
Amortization | — |  |  | (2,061 | ) |  | (2,061 | )
Foreign exchange | (123 | ) |  | $ | — |  |  | (123 | )
Removal of fully amortized assets | (1,070 | ) |  | 1,070 |  |  | — |
Balance at December 31, 2015 | $ | 21,604 |  |  | $ | (8,656 | ) |  | $ | 12,948 |
(in thousands) | Gross Carrying Amount |  | Accumulated Amortization |  | Net Carrying Amount
Non-Compete Agreements, Trademarks and Other |  |
Balance at January 1, 2014 | $ | 13,555 |  |  | (3,554 | ) |  | 10,001 |
Acquisition | 100 |  |  | — |  |  | 100 |
Amortization | — |  |  | (2,020 | ) |  | (2,020 | )
Foreign exchange | (62 | ) |  | — |  |  | (62 | )
Reclassifications (1)(2) | (2,554 | ) |  | — |  |  | (2,554 | )
Removal of fully amortized assets | (200 | ) |  | 200 |  |  | — |
Balance, at December 31, 2014 | 10,839 |  |  | (5,374 | ) |  | 5,465 |
Acquisition | 25 |  |  | — |  |  | 25 |
Amortization | — |  |  | (2,039 | ) |  | (2,039 | )
Foreign exchange | (76 | ) |  | — |  |  | (76 | )
Removal of fully amortized asset | (210 | ) |  | 210 |  |  | — |
Balance at December 31, 2015 | $ | 10,578 |  |  | $ | (7,203 | ) |  | $ | 3,375 |
(in thousands) | Gross Carrying Amount |  | Accumulated Amortization |  | Net Carrying Amount
Customer Relationships |  |
Balance at January 1, 2014 | $ | 22,849 |  |  | (11,164 | ) |  | 11,685 |
Amortization | — |  |  | (2,225 | ) |  | (2,225 | )
Reclassifications (1) | 658 |  |  | — |  |  | 658 |
Foreign exchange | (443 | ) |  | — |  |  | (443 | )
Removal of fully amortized assets | (1,718 | ) |  | 1,718 |  |  | — |
Balance, at December 31, 2014 | 21,346 |  |  | (11,671 | ) |  | 9,675 |
Acquisition | 474 |  |  | — |  |  | 474 |
Amortization | — |  |  | (1,881 | ) |  | (1,881 | )
Foreign exchange | (178 | ) |  | — |  |  | (178 | )
Removal of fully amortized assets | (400 | ) |  | 400 |  |  | — |
Balance at December 31, 2015 | $ | 21,242 |  |  | $ | (13,152 | ) |  | $ | 8,090 |
(1)(2) See footnotes following table entitled Indefinite-Lived Intangibles, below. At December 31, 2015, estimated future amortization of intangible assets was as follows: (in thousands)
2016 | $ | 6,054 |
2017 | 4,166 |
2018 | 3,130 |
2019 | 3,101 |
2020 | 3,072 |
Thereafter | 6,024 |
| $ | 25,547 |
Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets As of December 31, 2015, an IPR&D asset of $1.5 million requires further field testing and the Company anticipates substantial completion in 2015. The Company’s asset impairment assessment of the one IPR&D asset did not result in impairment in 2015. The changes in the carrying amounts of indefinite-lived trade name and IPR&D assets not subject to amortization as of December 31, 2014 and 2015, respectively, were as follows:
(in thousands) |  |  |  |  | Net Carrying
Indefinite-Lived Intangibles | Trade Name |  | IPR&D |  | Amount
Balance, at January 1, 2014 | $ | 616 |  |  | $ | 5,050 |  |  | $ | 5,666 |
Reclassifications (2) | — |  |  | (3,349 | ) |  | (3,349 | )
Foreign exchange | — |  |  | (183 | ) |  | (183 | )
Balance, at December 31, 2014 | 616 |  |  | 1,518 |  |  | 2,134 |
Foreign exchange | — |  |  | (6 | ) |  | (6 | )
Balance at December 31, 2015 | $ | 616 |  |  | $ | 1,512 |  |  | $ | 2,128 |
(1) Reclassifications in 2014 of $0.6 million to customer relationships related to finalizing accounting for the Bierbach acquisitions, with a corresponding $0.5 million decrease in non-compete agreements, trademarks and other; and $0.1 million decrease in goodwill.
(2) | Reclassification in 2014 of $3.3 million to unpatented technology for substantially completed IPR&D, with a corresponding reduction in indefinite-lived IPR&D and of $2.0 million to unpatented technology related to TJ® ShearBrace (“ShearBrace”), with a corresponding decrease in non-compete agreements, trademarks and other.
Amortizable and indefinite-lived assets, net, by segment, as of December 31, 2014 and 2015, respectively, were as follows:
| December 31, 2014
| Gross Carrying Amount |  | Accumulated Amortization |  | Net Carrying Amount
(in thousands) |  |
Total Intangible Assets |  |
North America | $ | 29,455 |  |  | $ | (14,719 | ) |  | $ | 14,736 |
Europe | 29,419 |  |  | (11,568 | ) |  | 17,851 |
Total | $ | 58,874 |  |  | $ | (26,287 | ) |  | $ | 32,587 |
| At December 31, 2015
| Gross Carrying Amount |  | Accumulated Amortization |  | Net Carrying Amount
(in thousands) |  |
Total Intangible Assets |  |
North America | $ | 27,475 |  |  | $ | (14,941 | ) |  | $ | 12,534 |
Europe | 29,590 |  |  | (14,449 | ) |  | 15,141 |
Total | $ | 57,065 |  |  | $ | (29,390 | ) |  | $ | 27,675 |
Adoption of Statements of Financial Accounting Standards | Recently Adopted Accounting Standards In September 2015, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update No. 2015-16, (Topic 805), Simplifying the Accounting for Measurement-Period Adjustments (“ASU 2015-16”). ASU 2015-16 amendments eliminate the requirement to restate prior period financial statements for measurement period adjustments made to provisional amounts recognized in a business combination. The new guidance requires that the cumulative impact of measurement period adjustments (including the impact on prior periods) be recognized in the reporting period in which the adjustments are determined. The amendments require preparers to present cumulative adjustments separately within the respective financial line items affected or disclose in the notes the amount recorded in current-period earnings. The new guidance does not change what constitutes a measurement period adjustment. The new standard should be applied prospectively to measurement period adjustments that occur after the effective date. The new standard is effective for interim and annual periods beginning after December 15, 2015, with early adoption permitted. The Company early adopted this guidance effective December 15, 2015, and the adoption had no material effect on its consolidated financial statements and footnote disclosures. In April 2015, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update No. 2015-05 (Subtopic 340-40), Customer’s Accounting for Fees Paid in a Cloud Computing Arrangement (“ASU 2015-05"). The guidance in this Subtopic applies only to internal-use software that a customer obtains access to in a hosted arrangement. The amendments provide guidance to customers about whether a cloud computing arrangement includes a software license. If a cloud computing arrangement includes a software license, then the customer should account for the software license element of the arrangement consistent with the acquisition of other software licenses. If a cloud computing arrangement does not include a software license, the customer should account for the arrangement as a service contract. With an election to adopt prospectively or retrospectively, this ASU will be effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2015. The Company early adopted ASU 2015-11 prospectively and the adoption had no material effect on its consolidated financial statements and footnote disclosures. In January 2015, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update No. 2015-01, Income Statement-Extraordinary and Unusual Items ("ASU 2015-01"). ASU 2015-01 eliminates the concept of extraordinary items found in Subtopic 225-20, which required that an entity separately classify, present and disclose extraordinary events and transaction when the event or activity met both criteria of being unusual in nature and infrequent in occurrence. Although the concept of extraordinary items will be eliminated, the presentation and disclosure guidance for items that are unusual in nature or occur infrequently will be retained and will be expanded to include items that are both unusual in nature and infrequently occurring. The standard is effective for fiscal years and interim periods within those fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2015. The Company early adopted ASU 2015-01 and the adoption had no material effect on its consolidated financial statements and footnote disclosures. Recently Issued Accounting Standards Not Yet Adopted In November 2015, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update No. 2015-17, Income Taxes (Topic 740), Balance Sheet Classification of Deferred Taxes (ASU 2015-17). The objective is to simplify the presentation of deferred income taxes; the amendments require that deferred tax assets and liabilities be classified as noncurrent in a classified consolidated balance sheets. ASU 2015-17 will be effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2016, including interim periods within those fiscal years. Earlier application is permitted for all entities as of the beginning of an interim or annual reporting period. The amendment may be applied either prospectively to all deferred tax liabilities and assets or retrospectively to all periods presented. The Company expects that the adoption of ASU 2015-17 will not materially affect its financial position or results of operations. In July 2015, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update No. 2015-11, (Topic 330), Simplifying the Measurement of Inventory (“ASU 2015-11”). The objective is to reduce the complexity related to inventory subsequent measurement and disclosure requirements. ASU 2015-11 amendments do not apply to inventory that is measured using last-in, first-out or the retail inventory method. The amendments apply to all other inventory, which includes inventory that is measured using first-in, first-out or average cost. Inventory within the scope of the new guidance should be measured at the lower of cost and net realizable value. Net realizable value is the estimated selling prices in the ordinary course of business, less reasonably predictable costs of completion, disposal and transportation. The amendments more closely align with the measurement of inventory in International Financial Reporting Standards. ASU 2015-11 will be effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2016, including interim periods within those fiscal years. The amendments in ASU 2015-11 should be applied prospectively with earlier application permitted as of the beginning of an interim or annual reporting period. The Company expects that the adoption of ASU 2015-11 will not materially affect its financial position or results of operations. In May 2014, the FASB issued Accounting Standards Update No. 2014-09, Revenue from Contracts with Customers ("ASU 2014-09"). ASU 2014-09 supersedes nearly all existing revenue recognition guidance under GAAP. The core principle of ASU 2014-09 is that revenue is recognized when promised goods or services are transferred to customers in an amount that reflects the consideration to which an entity expects to be entitled for those goods or services. ASU 2014-09 defines a five-step process to achieve this core principle and, in doing so, more judgment and estimates may be required within the revenue recognition process than are required under existing GAAP. The standard is effective for annual and interim periods beginning after December 15, 2017, using either of the following transition methods: (i) a full retrospective approach reflecting the application of the standard in each prior reporting period with the option to elect certain practical expedients, or (ii) a retrospective approach with the cumulative effect of initially adopting ASU 2014-09 recognized at the date of adoption (which includes additional footnote disclosures). The Company is currently evaluating the effects of adopting ASU 2014-09 on its consolidated financial statements and has not yet determined the method by which it will adopt the standard.

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