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Nature Of Operations, Basis Of Presentation And Summary Of Significant Accounting Policies (Policy) | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2019
Nature Of Operations, Basis Of Presentation And Summary Of Significant Accounting Policies |
Nature Of Operations | Nature of Operations Lincoln National Corporation and its majority-owned subsidiaries (“LNC” or the “Company,” which also may be referred to as “we,” “our” or “us”) operate multiple insurance businesses through four business segments. See Note 21 for additional details. The collective group of businesses uses “Lincoln Financial Group” as its marketing identity. Through our business segments, we sell a wide range of wealth protection, accumulation, retirement income and group protection products and solutions. These products primarily include fixed and indexed annuities, variable annuities, universal life insurance (“UL”), variable universal life insurance (“VUL”), linked-benefit UL, indexed universal life insurance (“IUL”), term life insurance, employer-sponsored retirement plans and services, and group life, disability and dental.
Basis Of Presentation | Basis of Presentation The accompanying consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with United States of America generally accepted accounting principles (“GAAP”). Certain GAAP policies, which significantly affect the determination of financial condition, results of operations and cash flows, are summarized below.
Principles Of Consolidation | Principles of Consolidation The accompanying consolidated financial statements include the accounts of LNC and all other entities in which we have a controlling financial interest and any variable interest entities (“VIEs”) in which we are the primary beneficiary. As discussed in Note 3, on May 1, 2018, LNC and The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company (“LNL”) completed the acquisition of Liberty Life Assurance Company of Boston (“Liberty Life”), which effective September 1, 2019, was renamed Lincoln Life Assurance Company of Boston (“LLACB”). We use the equity method of accounting to recognize all of our investments in limited liability partnerships. All material inter-company accounts and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation. Our involvement with VIEs is primarily to invest in assets that allow us to gain exposure to a broadly diversified portfolio of asset classes. A VIE is an entity that does not have sufficient equity to finance its own activities without additional financial support or where investors lack certain characteristics of a controlling financial interest. We assess our contractual, ownership or other interests in a VIE to determine if our interest participates in the variability the VIE was designed to absorb and pass onto variable interest holders. We perform an ongoing qualitative assessment of our variable interests in VIEs to determine whether we have a controlling financial interest and would therefore be considered the primary beneficiary of the VIE. If we determine we are the primary beneficiary of a VIE, we consolidate the assets and liabilities of the VIE in our consolidated financial statements.
Accounting Estimates and Assumptions | Accounting Estimates and Assumptions The preparation of financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions affecting the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities as of the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses for the reporting period. Those estimates are inherently subject to change and actual results could differ from those estimates. Included among the material (or potentially material) reported amounts and disclosures that require extensive use of estimates are: fair value of certain investments and derivatives, other-than-temporary impairment (“OTTI”) and asset valuation allowances, deferred acquisition costs (“DAC”), value of business acquired (“VOBA”), deferred sales inducements (“DSI”), goodwill, future contract benefits, other contract holder funds including deferred front-end loads (“DFEL”), pension plans, stock-based incentive compensation, income taxes and the potential effects of resolving litigated matters.
Business Combinations | Business Combinations We use the acquisition method of accounting for all business combination transactions, and accordingly, recognize the fair values of assets acquired, liabilities assumed and any noncontrolling interests in our consolidated financial statements. The allocation of fair values may be subject to adjustment after the initial allocation for up to a one-year period as more information becomes available relative to the fair values as of the acquisition date. The consolidated financial statements include the results of operations of any acquired company since the acquisition date.
Fair Value Measurement | Fair Value Measurement Our measurement of fair value is based on assumptions used by market participants in pricing the asset or liability, which may include inherent risk, restrictions on the sale or use of an asset or non-performance risk (“NPR”), which would include our own credit risk. Our estimate of an exchange price is the price in an orderly transaction between market participants to sell the asset or transfer the liability (“exit price”) in the principal market, or the most advantageous market in the absence of a principal market, for that asset or liability, as opposed to the price that would be paid to acquire the asset or receive a liability (“entry price”). Pursuant to the Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures Topic of the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) Accounting Standards Codification TM (“ASC”), we categorize our financial instruments carried at fair value into a three-level fair value hierarchy, based on the priority of inputs to the respective valuation technique. The three-level hierarchy for fair value measurement is defined as follows: Level 1 – inputs to the valuation methodology are quoted prices available in active markets for identical investments as of the reporting date, except for large holdings subject to “blockage discounts” that are excluded; Level 2 – inputs to the valuation methodology are other than quoted prices in active markets, which are either directly or indirectly observable as of the reporting date, and fair value can be determined through the use of models or other valuation methodologies; and Level 3 – inputs to the valuation methodology are unobservable inputs in situations where there is little or no market activity for the asset or liability, and we make estimates and assumptions related to the pricing of the asset or liability, including assumptions regarding risk. In certain cases, the inputs used to measure fair value may fall into different levels of the fair value hierarchy. In such cases, the level within the fair value hierarchy is based on the lowest level of input that is significant to the fair value measurement. Our assessment of the significance of a particular input to the fair value measurement in its entirety requires judgment and considers factors specific to the investment. When a determination is made to classify an asset or liability within Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy, the determination is based upon the significance of the unobservable inputs to the overall fair value measurement. Because certain securities trade in less liquid or illiquid markets with limited or no pricing information, the determination of fair value for these securities is inherently more difficult. However, Level 3 fair value investments may include, in addition to the unobservable or Level 3 inputs, observable components, which are components that are actively quoted or can be validated to market-based sources.
Fixed Maturity Available-For-Sale Securities – Fair Valuation Methodologies and Associated Inputs | Fixed Maturity Available-For-Sale Securities – Fair Valuation Methodologies and Associated Inputs Securities classified as available-for-sale (“AFS”) consist of fixed maturity securities and are stated at fair value with unrealized gains and losses included within accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) (“AOCI”), net of associated DAC, VOBA, DSI, future contract benefits, other contract holder funds and deferred income taxes. We measure the fair value of our securities classified as fixed maturity AFS based on assumptions used by market participants in pricing the security. The most appropriate valuation methodology is selected based on the specific characteristics of the fixed maturity security, and we consistently apply the valuation methodology to measure the security’s fair value. Our fair value measurement is based on a market approach that utilizes prices and other relevant information generated by market transactions involving identical or comparable securities. Sources of inputs to the market approach primarily include third-party pricing services, independent broker quotations or pricing matrices. We do not adjust prices received from third parties; however, we do analyze the third-party pricing services’ valuation methodologies and related inputs and perform additional evaluation to determine the appropriate level within the fair value hierarchy. The observable and unobservable inputs to our valuation methodologies are based on a set of standard inputs that we generally use to evaluate all of our fixed maturity AFS securities. Observable inputs include benchmark yields, reported trades, broker-dealer quotes, issuer spreads, two-sided markets, benchmark securities, bids, offers and reference data. In addition, market indicators, industry and economic events are monitored, and further market data is acquired if certain triggers are met. For certain security types, additional inputs may be used, or some of the inputs described above may not be applicable. For private placement securities, we use pricing matrices that utilize observable pricing inputs of similar public securities and Treasury yields as inputs to the fair value measurement. Depending on the type of security or the daily market activity, standard inputs may be prioritized differently or may not be available for all fixed maturity AFS securities on any given day. For broker-quoted only securities, non-binding quotes from market makers or broker-dealers are obtained from sources recognized as market participants. For securities trading in less liquid or illiquid markets with limited or no pricing information, we use unobservable inputs to measure fair value. The following summarizes our fair valuation methodologies and associated inputs, which are particular to the specified security type and are in addition to the defined standard inputs to our valuation methodologies for all of our fixed maturity AFS securities discussed above: Corporate bonds and U.S. government bonds – We also use Trade Reporting and Compliance Engine TM reported tables for our corporate bonds and vendor trading platform data for our U.S. government bonds. Mortgage- and asset-backed securities (“ABS”) – We also utilize additional inputs, which include new issues data, monthly payment information and monthly collateral performance, including prepayments, severity, delinquencies, step-down features and over collateralization features for each of our mortgage-backed securities (“MBS”), which include collateralized mortgage obligations and mortgage pass through securities backed by residential mortgages (“RMBS”), commercial mortgage-backed securities (“CMBS”), collateralized loan obligations (“CLOs”) and collateralized debt obligations (“CDOs”). State and municipal bonds – We also use additional inputs that include information from the Municipal Securities Rule Making Board, as well as material event notices, new issue data, issuer financial statements and Municipal Market Data benchmark yields for our state and municipal bonds. Hybrid and redeemable preferred securities – We also utilize additional inputs of exchange prices (underlying and common stock of the same issuer) for our hybrid and redeemable preferred securities. In order to validate the pricing information and broker-dealer quotes, we employ, where possible, procedures that include comparisons with similar observable positions, comparisons with subsequent sales and observations of general market movements for those security classes. We have policies and procedures in place to review the process that is utilized by our third-party pricing service and the output that is provided to us by the pricing service. On a periodic basis, we test the pricing for a sample of securities to evaluate the inputs and assumptions used by the pricing service, and we perform a comparison of the pricing service output to an alternative pricing source. We also evaluate prices provided by our primary pricing service to ensure that they are not stale or unreasonable by reviewing the prices for unusual changes from period to period based on certain parameters or for lack of change from one period to the next.
Fixed Maturity AFS Securities – Evaluation for Recovery of Amortized Cost | Fixed Maturity AFS Securities – Evaluation for Recovery of Amortized Cost We regularly review our fixed maturity AFS securities (also referred to as “debt securities”) for declines in fair value that we determine to be other-than-temporary. For our debt securities, we generally consider the following to determine whether our debt securities with unrealized losses are other-than-temporarily impaired: The estimated range and average period until recovery; The estimated range and average holding period to maturity; Remaining payment terms of the security; Current delinquencies and nonperforming assets of underlying collateral; Expected future default rates; Collateral value by vintage, geographic region, industry concentration or property type; Subordination levels or other credit enhancements as of the balance sheet date as compared to origination; and Contractual and regulatory cash obligations. For a debt security, if we intend to sell a security, or it is more likely than not we will be required to sell a debt security before recovery of its amortized cost basis and the fair value of the debt security is below amortized cost, we conclude that an OTTI has occurred and the amortized cost is written down to current fair value, with a corresponding charge to realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). If we do not intend to sell a debt security, or it is not more likely than not we will be required to sell a debt security before recovery of its amortized cost basis but the present value of the cash flows expected to be collected is less than the amortized cost of the debt security (referred to as the credit loss), we conclude that an OTTI has occurred and the amortized cost is written down to the estimated recovery value with a corresponding charge to realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss), as this amount is deemed the credit portion of the OTTI. The remainder of the decline to fair value is recorded in other comprehensive income (“OCI”) to unrealized OTTI on fixed maturity AFS securities on our Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity, as this amount is considered a noncredit (i.e., recoverable) impairment. When assessing our intent to sell a debt security, or if it is more likely than not we will be required to sell a debt security before recovery of its cost basis, we evaluate facts and circumstances such as, but not limited to, decisions to reposition our security portfolio, sales of securities to meet cash flow needs and sales of securities to capitalize on favorable pricing. Management considers the following as part of the evaluation: The current economic environment and market conditions; Our business strategy and current business plans; The nature and type of security, including expected maturities and exposure to general credit, liquidity, market and interest rate risk; Our analysis of data from financial models and other internal and industry sources to evaluate the current effectiveness of our hedging and overall risk management strategies; The current and expected timing of contractual maturities of our assets and liabilities, expectations of prepayments on investments and expectations for surrenders and withdrawals of life insurance policies and annuity contracts; The capital risk limits approved by management; and Our current financial condition and liquidity demands. In order to determine the amount of the credit loss for a debt security, we calculate the recovery value by performing a discounted cash flow analysis based on the current cash flows and future cash flows we expect to recover. The discount rate is the effective interest rate implicit in the underlying debt security. The effective interest rate is the original yield, or the coupon if the debt security was previously impaired. See the discussion below for additional information on the methodology and significant inputs, by security type, that we use to determine the amount of a credit loss. To determine the recovery period of a debt security, we consider the facts and circumstances surrounding the underlying issuer including, but not limited to, the following: Historical and implied volatility of the security; Length of time and extent to which the fair value has been less than amortized cost; Adverse conditions specifically related to the security or to specific conditions in an industry or geographic area; Failure, if any, of the issuer of the security to make scheduled payments; and Recoveries or additional declines in fair value subsequent to the balance sheet date. In periods subsequent to the recognition of an OTTI, the fixed maturity AFS security is accounted for as if it had been purchased on the measurement date of the OTTI. Therefore, for the fixed maturity AFS security, the original discount or reduced premium is reflected in net investment income over the contractual term of the investment in a manner that produces a constant effective yield. To determine recovery value of a corporate bond, CLO or CDO, we perform additional analysis related to the underlying issuer including, but not limited to, the following: Fundamentals of the issuer to determine what we would recover if they were to file bankruptcy versus the price at which the market is trading; Fundamentals of the industry in which the issuer operates; Earnings multiples for the given industry or sector of an industry that the underlying issuer operates within, divided by the outstanding debt to determine an expected recovery value of the security in the case of a liquidation; Expected cash flows of the issuer (e.g., whether the issuer has cash flows in excess of what is required to fund its operations); Expectations regarding defaults and recovery rates; Changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency; and Additional market information (e.g., if there has been a replacement of the corporate debt security). Each quarter, we review the cash flows for the MBS to determine whether or not they are sufficient to provide for the recovery of our amortized cost. We revise our cash flow projections only for those securities that are at most risk for impairment based on current credit enhancement and trends in the underlying collateral performance. To determine recovery value of a MBS, we perform additional analysis related to the underlying issuer including, but not limited to, the following: Discounted cash flow analysis based on the current cash flows and future cash flows we expect to recover; Level of creditworthiness of the home equity loans or residential mortgages that back an RMBS or commercial mortgages that back a CMBS; Susceptibility to fair value fluctuations for changes in the interest rate environment; Susceptibility to reinvestment risks, in cases where market yields are lower than the securities’ book yield earned; Susceptibility to reinvestment risks, in cases where market yields are higher than the book yields earned on a security; Expectations of sale of such a security where market yields are higher than the book yields earned on a security; and Susceptibility to variability of prepayments. When evaluating MBS and mortgage-related ABS, we consider a number of pool-specific factors as well as market level factors when determining whether or not the impairment on the security is temporary or other-than-temporary. The most important factor is the performance of the underlying collateral in the security and the trends of that performance in the prior periods. We use this information about the collateral to forecast the timing and rate of mortgage loan defaults, including making projections for loans that are already delinquent and for those loans that are currently performing but may become delinquent in the future. Other factors used in this analysis include the credit characteristics of borrowers, geographic distribution of underlying loans and timing of liquidations by state. Once default rates and timing assumptions are determined, we then make assumptions regarding the severity of a default if it were to occur. Factors that impact the severity assumption include expectations for future home price appreciation or depreciation, loan size, first lien versus second lien, existence of loan level private mortgage insurance, type of occupancy and geographic distribution of loans. Once default and severity assumptions are determined for the security in question, cash flows for the underlying collateral are projected including expected defaults and prepayments. These cash flows on the collateral are then translated to cash flows on our tranche based on the cash flow waterfall of the entire capital security structure. If this analysis indicates the entire principal on a particular security will not be returned, the security is reviewed for OTTI by comparing the expected cash flows to amortized cost. To the extent that the security has already been impaired or was purchased at a discount, such that the amortized cost of the security is less than or equal to the present value of cash flows expected to be collected, no impairment is required. Otherwise, if the amortized cost of the security is greater than the present value of the cash flows expected to be collected, and the security was not purchased at a discount greater than the expected principal loss, then impairment is recognized. We further monitor the cash flows of all of our fixed maturity AFS securities backed by mortgages on an ongoing basis. We also perform detailed analysis on all of our subprime, Alt-A, non-agency residential MBS and on a significant percentage of our fixed maturity AFS securities backed by pools of commercial mortgages. The detailed analysis includes revising projected cash flows by updating the cash flows for actual cash received and applying assumptions with respect to expected defaults, foreclosures and recoveries in the future. These revised projected cash flows are then compared to the amount of credit enhancement (subordination) in the structure to determine whether the amortized cost of the security is recoverable. If it is not recoverable, we record an impairment of the security.
Trading Securities | Trading Securities Trading securities consist of fixed maturity securities in designated portfolios, some of which support modified coinsurance (“Modco”) and coinsurance with funds withheld (“CFW”) reinsurance agreements. Investment results for the portfolios that support Modco and CFW reinsurance agreements, including gains and losses from sales, are passed directly to the reinsurers pursuant to contractual terms of the reinsurance agreements. Trading securities are carried at fair value, and changes in fair value and changes in the fair value of embedded derivative liabilities associated with the underlying reinsurance agreements are recorded in realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) as they occur.
Equity Securities | Equity Securities Equity securities are carried at fair value, and changes in fair value are recorded in realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) as they occur. Equity securities consist primarily of common stock of publicly-traded companies, privately placed securities and mutual fund shares. We measure the fair value of our equity securities based on assumptions used by market participants in pricing the security. The most appropriate valuation methodology is selected based on the specific characteristics of the equity security. Fair values of publicly-traded equity securities are determined using quoted prices in active markets for identical or comparable securities. When quoted prices are not available, we use valuation methodologies most appropriate for the specific asset. Fair values for private placement securities are determined using discounted cash flow, earnings multiple and other valuation models. The fair values of mutual fund shares that transact regularly are based on transaction prices of identical fund shares.
Alternative Investments | Alternative Investments Alternative investments, which consist primarily of investments in limited partnerships (“LPs”), are included in other investments on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. We account for our investments in LPs using the equity method to determine the carrying value. Recognition of alternative investment income is delayed due to the availability of the related financial statements, which are generally obtained from the partnerships’ general partners. As a result, our private equity investments are generally on a three-month delay and our hedge funds are on a one-month delay. In addition, the impact of audit adjustments related to completion of calendar-year financial statement audits of the investees are typically received during the second quarter of each calendar year. Accordingly, our investment income from alternative investments for any calendar-year period may not include the complete impact of the change in the underlying net assets for the partnership for that calendar-year period.
Payables for Collateral on Investments | Payables for Collateral on Investments When we enter into collateralized financing transactions on our investments, a liability is recorded equal to the cash or non-cash collateral received. This liability is included within payables for collateral on investments on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Income and expenses associated with these transactions are recorded as investment income and investment expenses within net investment income on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). Changes in payables for collateral on investments are reflected within cash flows from investing activities on our Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows.
Mortgage Loans on Real Estate | Mortgage Loans on Real Estate Mortgage loans on real estate consist of commercial and residential mortgage loans and are carried at unpaid principal balances adjusted for amortization of premiums and accretion of discounts and are net of valuation allowances. Interest income is accrued on the principal balance of the loan based on the loan’s contractual interest rate. Premiums and discounts are amortized using the effective yield method over the life of the loan. Interest income and amortization of premiums and discounts are reported in net investment income on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) along with mortgage loan fees, which are recorded as they are incurred. Our policy for commercial mortgage loans is to report loans that are 60 or more days past due, which equates to two or more payments missed, as delinquent. Our policy for residential mortgage loans is to report loans that are 90 or more days past due, which equates to three or more payments missed, as delinquent. We do not accrue interest on loans 90 days past due, and any interest received on these loans is either applied to the principal or recorded in net investment income on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) when received, depending on the assessment of the collectability of the loan. We resume accruing interest once a loan complies with all of its original terms or restructured terms. Mortgage loans deemed uncollectible are charged against the valuation allowance, and subsequent recoveries, if any, are credited to the valuation allowance. We establish a valuation allowance to provide for the risk of credit losses inherent in our portfolio. The valuation allowance includes specific valuation allowances for loans that are deemed to be impaired as well as general valuation allowances for pools of loans with similar risk characteristics where a property risk or market specific risk has not been identified but for which we anticipate a loss may occur. Loans are considered impaired when it is probable that, based upon current information and events, we will be unable to collect all amounts due under the contractual terms of the loan agreement. When we determine that a loan is impaired, a specific valuation allowance is established for the excess carrying value of the loan over its estimated value. The loan’s estimated value is based on: the present value of expected future cash flows discounted at the loan’s effective interest rate; the loan’s observable market price; or the fair value of the loan’s collateral. Changes in valuation allowances are reported in realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). General valuation allowances are primarily based on loss history adjusted for current conditions. Valuation allowances are maintained at a level we believe is adequate to absorb estimated probable credit losses. Our periodic evaluation of the adequacy of the valuation allowances is based on historical loss experience, known and inherent risks in the portfolio, adverse situations that may affect the borrower’s ability to repay (including the timing of future payments), the estimated value of the underlying collateral, composition of the loan portfolio, current economic conditions and other relevant factors. Our commercial loan portfolio is primarily comprised of long-term loans secured by existing commercial real estate. We believe all of the commercial loans in our portfolio share three primary risks: borrower credit worthiness; sustainability of the cash flow of the property; and market risk; therefore, our methods of monitoring and assessing credit risk are consistent for our entire portfolio. For our commercial mortgage loan portfolio, trends in market vacancy and rental rates are incorporated into the analysis that we perform for monitored loans and may contribute to the establishment of (or an increase or decrease in) a valuation allowance. In addition, we review each loan individually in our commercial mortgage loan portfolio on an annual basis to identify emerging risks. We focus on properties that experienced a reduction in debt-service coverage or that have significant exposure to tenants with deteriorating credit profiles. Where warranted, we establish or increase a valuation allowance for a specific loan based upon this analysis. We measure and assess the credit quality of our commercial mortgage loans by using loan-to-value and debt-service coverage ratios. The loan-to-value ratio compares the principal amount of the loan to the fair value at origination of the underlying property collateralizing the loan and is commonly expressed as a percentage. Loan-to-value ratios greater than 100% indicate that the principal amount is greater than the collateral value. Therefore, all else being equal, a lower loan-to-value ratio generally indicates a higher quality loan. The debt-service coverage ratio compares a property’s net operating income to its debt-service payments. Debt-service coverage ratios of less than 1.0 indicate that property operations do not generate enough income to cover its current debt payments. Therefore, all else being equal, a higher debt-service coverage ratio generally indicates a higher quality loan. Our residential loan portfolio is primarily comprised of first lien mortgages secured by existing residential real estate. In contrast to the commercial mortgage loan portfolio, residential mortgage loans are primarily smaller-balance homogenous loans that share similar risk characteristics. Therefore, these pools of loans are collectively evaluated for inherent credit losses. Such evaluations consider numerous factors, including, but not limited to borrower credit scores, collateral values, loss forecasts, geographic location, delinquency rates and economic trends. These evaluations and assessments are revised as conditions change and new information becomes available, which can cause the valuation allowances to increase or decrease over time as such evaluations are revised. Residential mortgage loan pools exclude loans that have been impaired as those loans are evaluated individually using the evaluation framework for specific valuation allowances described above. For residential mortgage loans, our primary credit quality indicator is whether the loan is performing or nonperforming. We generally define nonperforming residential mortgage loans as those that are 90 or more days past due and/or in nonaccrual status. There is generally a higher risk of experiencing credit losses when a residential mortgage loan is nonperforming.
Policy Loans | Policy Loans Policy loans represent loans we issue to contract holders that use the cash surrender value of their life insurance policy as collateral. Policy loans are carried at unpaid principal balances.
Real Estate | Real Estate Real estate includes both real estate held for the production of income and real estate held-for-sale. Real estate held for the production of income is carried at cost less accumulated depreciation. Depreciation is calculated on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful life of the asset. We periodically review properties held for the production of income for impairment. Properties whose carrying values are greater than their projected undiscounted cash flows are written down to estimated fair value, with impairment losses reported in realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). The estimated fair value of real estate is generally computed using the present value of expected future cash flows from the real estate discounted at a rate commensurate with the underlying risks. Real estate classified as held-for-sale is stated at the lower of depreciated cost or fair value less expected disposition costs at the time classified as held-for-sale. Real estate is not depreciated while it is classified as held-for-sale. Also, valuation allowances are established, as appropriate, for real estate held-for-sale and any changes to the valuation allowances are reported in realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). Real estate acquired through foreclosure proceedings is recorded at fair value at the settlement date.
Derivative Instruments | Derivative Instruments We hedge certain portions of our exposure to interest rate risk, foreign currency exchange risk, equity market risk and credit risk by entering into derivative transactions. All of our derivative instruments are recognized as either assets or liabilities on our Consolidated Balance Sheets at estimated fair value. W e categorized derivatives into a three-level hierarchy, based on the priority of the inputs to the respective valuation technique as discussed above in “Fair Value Measurement.” The accounting for changes in the estimated fair value of a derivative instrument depends on whether it has been designated and qualifies as part of a hedging relationship, and further, on the type of hedging relationship. For those derivative instruments that are designated and qualify as hedging instruments, we designate the hedging instrument based upon the exposure being hedged: as a cash flow hedge or a fair value hedge. For derivative instruments that are designated and qualify as a cash flow hedge, the effective portion of the gain or loss on the derivative instrument is reported as a component of AOCI and reclassified into net income in the same period or periods during which the hedged transaction affects net income. The remaining gain or loss on the derivative instrument in excess of the cumulative change in the present value of designated future cash flows of the hedged item (hedge ineffectiveness), if any, is recognized in net income during the period of change. For derivative instruments that are designated and qualify as a fair value hedge, the gain or loss on the derivative instrument, as well as the offsetting gain or loss on the hedged item attributable to the hedged risk are recognized in net income during the period of change in estimated fair values. For derivative instruments not designated as hedging instruments, but that are economic hedges, the gain or loss is recognized in net income. We purchase and issue financial instruments and products that contain embedded derivative instruments. When it is determined that the embedded derivative possesses economic characteristics that are not clearly and closely related to the economic characteristics of the host contract, and a separate instrument with the same terms would qualify as a derivative instrument, the embedded derivative is bifurcated from the host for measurement purposes. The embedded derivative is carried at fair value with changes in fair value recognized in net income during the period of change. We employ several different methods for determining the fair value of our derivative instruments. The fair value of our derivative contracts are measured based on current settlement values, which are based on quoted market prices, industry standard models that are commercially available and broker quotes. These techniques project cash flows of the derivatives using current and implied future market conditions. We calculate the present value of the cash flows to measure the current fair market value of the derivative.
Cash And Invested Cash | Cash and Invested Cash Cash and invested cash is carried at cost and includes all highly liquid debt instruments purchased with an original maturity of three months or less.
DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL | DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL Acquisition costs directly related to successful contract acquisitions or renewals of UL insurance, VUL insurance, traditional life insurance, annuities and other investment contracts have been deferred (i.e., DAC) to the extent recoverable. VOBA is an intangible asset that reflects the estimated fair value of in-force contracts in a life insurance company acquisition and represents the portion of the purchase price that is allocated to the value of the right to receive future cash flows from the business in force at the acquisition date. Bonus credits and excess interest for dollar cost averaging contracts are considered DSI. Contract sales charges that are collected in the early years of an insurance contract are deferred (i.e., DFEL), and the unamortized balance is reported in other contract holder funds on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Both DAC and VOBA amortization, excluding amounts reported in realized gain (loss), is reported within commissions and other expenses on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). DSI amortization, excluding amounts reported in realized gain (loss), is reported in interest credited on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). The amortization of DFEL, excluding amounts reported in realized gain (loss), is reported within fee income on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). The methodology for determining the amortization of DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL varies by product type. For all insurance contracts, amortization is based on assumptions consistent with those used in the development of the underlying contract adjusted for emerging experience and expected trends. Acquisition costs for UL and VUL insurance and investment-type products, which include fixed and variable deferred annuities, are generally amortized over the lives of the policies in relation to the incidence of estimated gross profits (“EGPs”) from surrender charges, investment, mortality net of reinsurance ceded and expense margins and actual realized gain (loss) on investments. Contract lives for UL and VUL policies are estimated to be 40 years based on the expected lives of the contracts. Contract lives for fixed and variable deferred annuities are generally between 15 and 30 years, while some of our fixed multi-year guarantee products have amortization periods equal to the guarantee period. The front-end load annuity product has an assumed life of 25 years. Longer lives are assigned to those blocks that have demonstrated lower lapse experience. Acquisition costs for all traditional contracts, including traditional life insurance contracts, such as individual whole life, group business and term life insurance, are amortized over the expected premium-paying period that generally results in amortization less than 30 years. Acquisition costs are either amortized on a straight-line basis or as a level percent of premium of the related policies depending on the block of business. There is currently no DAC, VOBA, DSI or DFEL balance or related amortization for fixed and variable payout annuities. We account for modifications of insurance contracts that result in a substantially unchanged contract as a continuation of the replaced contract. We account for modifications of insurance contracts that result in a substantially changed contract as an extinguishment of the replaced contract. The carrying amounts of DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL are adjusted for the effects of realized and unrealized gains and losses on securities classified as fixed maturity AFS and certain derivatives and embedded derivatives. Amortization expense of DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL reflects an assumption for an expected level of credit-related investment losses. When actual credit-related investment losses are realized, we recognize a true-up to our DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL amortization within realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) reflecting the incremental effect of actual versus expected credit-related investment losses. These actual to expected amortization adjustments can create volatility from period to period in realized gain (loss). During the third quarter of each year, we conduct our annual comprehensive review of the assumptions and the projection models used for our estimates of future gross profits underlying the amortization of DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL and the calculations of the embedded derivatives and reserves for life insurance and annuity products. These assumptions include, but are not limited to, capital markets, investment margins, mortality, retention, rider utilization and maintenance expenses (costs associated with maintaining records relating to insurance and individual and group annuity contracts, and with the processing of premium collections, deposits, withdrawals and commissions). Based on our review, the cumulative balances of DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL included on our Consolidated Balance Sheets are adjusted with an offsetting benefit or charge to revenue or amortization expense to reflect such change related to our expectations of future EGPs (“unlocking”). We may have unlocking in other quarters as we become aware of information that warrants updating assumptions outside of our annual comprehensive review. We may also identify and implement actuarial modeling refinements that result in increases or decreases to the carrying values of DAC, VOBA, DSI, DFEL, embedded derivatives and reserves for life insurance and annuity products with living benefit and death benefit guarantees. DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL are reviewed to ensure that the unamortized portion does not exceed the expected recoverable amounts.
Reinsurance | Reinsurance Our insurance subsidiaries enter into reinsurance agreements in the normal course of business to limit our exposure to the risk of loss and to enhance our capital management. In order for a reinsurance agreement to qualify for reinsurance accounting, the agreement must satisfy certain risk transfer conditions that include, among other items, a reasonable possibility of a significant loss for the assuming entity. When we apply reinsurance accounting, premiums, benefits and DAC amortization are reported net of insurance ceded on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). Amounts currently recoverable, such as ceded reserves, are reported in reinsurance recoverables and amounts currently payable to the reinsurers, such as premiums, are included in other liabilities on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Assets and liabilities and premiums and benefits from certain reinsurance contracts that grant statutory surplus relief to our insurance companies are netted on our Consolidated Balance Sheets and Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss), respectively, if there is a contractual right of offset. We use deposit accounting to recognize reinsurance agreements that do not transfer significant insurance risk. This accounting treatment results in amounts paid or received by our insurance subsidiaries to be considered on deposit with the reinsurer and such amounts are reported in other assets and other liabilities, respectively, on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. As amounts are paid or received, consistent with the underlying contracts, deposit assets or liabilities are adjusted.
Goodwill | Goodwill We recognize the excess of the purchase price, plus the fair value of any noncontrolling interest in the acquiree, over the fair value of identifiable net assets acquired as goodwill. Goodwill is not amortized, but is reviewed for impairment annually as of October 1 and more frequently if an event occurs or circumstances change that would more likely than not reduce the fair value of a reporting unit below its carrying value. We perform a quantitative goodwill impairment test where the fair value of the reporting unit is determined and compared to the carrying value of the reporting unit. If the carrying value of the reporting unit is greater than the reporting unit’s fair value, goodwill is impaired and written down to the reporting unit’s fair value; and a charge is reported in impairment of intangibles on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). The results of one goodwill impairment test on one reporting unit cannot subsidize the results of another reporting unit.
Other Assets and Other Liabilities | Other Assets and Other Liabilities Other assets consist primarily of DSI, specifically identifiable intangible assets, property and equipment owned by the Company, balances associated with corporate-owned and bank-owned life insurance, certain reinsurance assets, receivables resulting from sales of securities that had not yet settled as of the balance sheet date, debt issuance costs associated with line-of-credit arrangements, operating lease right-of-use (“ROU”) assets, finance lease assets, certain financing arrangements and other prepaid expenses. Other liabilities consist primarily of current and deferred taxes, pension and other employee benefit liabilities, derivative instrument liabilities, certain reinsurance payables, payables resulting from purchases of securities that had not yet settled as of the balance sheet date, interest on borrowed funds, long-term operating lease liabilities, finance lease liabilities, certain financing arrangements, deferred gain on business sold through reinsurance and other accrued expenses. Other assets and other liabilities on our Consolidated Balance Sheets include guaranteed living benefit (“GLB”) features and remaining guaranteed interest and similar contracts that are carried at fair value, which may be reported in either other assets or other liabilities. The fair value of these items represents approximate exit price including an estimate for our NPR. Certain of these features have elements of both insurance benefits and embedded derivatives. Through our hybrid accounting approach, for reserve calculation purposes we assign product cash flows to the embedded derivative or insurance portion of the reserves based on the life-contingent nature of the benefits. We classify these GLB reserves embedded derivatives in Level 3 within the hierarchy levels described above in “Fair Value Measurement.” We report the insurance portion of the reserves in future contract benefits. The carrying values of specifically identifiable intangible assets are reviewed at least annually for indicators of impairment in value that are other-than-temporary, including unexpected or adverse changes in the following: the economic or competitive environments in which the company operates; profitability analyses; cash flow analyses; and the fair value of the relevant business operation. If there was an indication of impairment, then the discounted cash flow method would be used to measure the impairment, and the carrying value would be adjusted as necessary and reported in impairment of intangibles on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). Sales force intangibles are attributable to the value of the new business distribution system acquired through business combinations. These assets are amortized on a straight-line basis over their useful life of 25 years. Specifically identifiable intangible assets also includes the value of customer relationships acquired (“VOCRA”) and value of distribution agreements (“VODA”) that were acquired through our business combination during 2018. The carrying values of VOCRA and VODA are amortized using a straight-line basis over their weighted average life of 20 years and 13 years, respectively. See Note 10 for more information regarding specifically identifiable intangible assets acquired. Property and equipment owned for company use is carried at cost less allowances for depreciation. Provisions for depreciation of investment real estate and property and equipment owned for company use are computed principally on the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the assets, which include buildings, computer hardware and software and other property and equipment. Certain assets on our Consolidated Balance Sheets are related to finance leases and certain financing arrangements and are depreciated in a manner consistent with our current depreciation policy for owned assets. We periodically review the carrying value of our long-lived assets, including property and equipment, for impairment whenever events or circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of such assets may not be fully recoverable. For long-lived assets to be held and used, impairments are recognized when the carrying amount of a long-lived asset is not recoverable and exceeds its fair value. The carrying amount of a long-lived asset is not recoverable if it exceeds the sum of the undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the asset. An impairment loss is measured as the amount by which the carrying amount of a long-lived asset exceeds its fair value. Long-lived assets to be disposed of by abandonment or in an exchange for a similar productive long-lived asset are classified as held-for-use until they are disposed. Long-lived assets to be sold are classified as held-for-sale and are no longer depreciated. Certain criteria have to be met in order for the long-lived asset to be classified as held-for-sale, including that a sale is probable and expected to occur within one year. Long-lived assets classified as held-for-sale are recorded at the lower of their carrying amount or fair value less cost to sell. Effective January 1, 2019, we adopted ASU 2016-02, which resulted in a new measurement and recognition of our long-term operating leases on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. We lease office space and certain equipment under various long-term lease agreements. We determine if an arrangement is a lease at inception. Operating lease ROU assets and operating lease liabilities are recognized based on the present value of the future minimum lease payments over the lease term at the commencement date. Our leases do not provide an implicit rate; therefore, we use our incremental borrowing rate at the commencement date in determining the present value of future payments. The ROU asset is calculated using the lease liability carrying amount, plus or minus prepaid/accrued lease payments, minus the unamortized balance of lease incentives received, plus unamortized initial direct costs. Lease terms used to calculate our lease obligation include options when we are reasonably certain that we will exercise such options. Our lease agreements may contain both lease and non-lease components, which are accounted for separately. Lease expense for minimum lease payments is recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term. See Notes 2 and 14 for additional information. Other liabilities includes a deferred gain on business sold through reinsurance attributable to our annuity reinsurance agreement with Athene Holding Ltd. (“Athene”) effective October 1, 2018. We are recognizing the gain related to this transaction over the period over which the majority of account values are expected to run off, or 20 years.
Separate Account Assets and Liabilities | Separate Account Assets and Liabilities We maintain separate account assets, which are reported at fair value. The related liabilities are reported at an amount equivalent to the separate account assets. Investment risks associated with market value changes are borne by the contract holders, except to the extent of minimum guarantees made by the Company with respect to certain accounts. We issue variable annuity contracts through our separate accounts for which investment income and investment gains and losses accrue directly to, and investment risk is borne by, the contract holder (traditional variable annuities). We also issue variable annuity and life contracts through separate accounts that may include various types of guaranteed death benefit (“GDB”), guaranteed withdrawal benefit (“GWB”) and guaranteed income benefit (“GIB”) features. The GDB features include those where we contractually guarantee to the contract holder either: return of no less than total deposits made to the contract less any partial withdrawals (“return of net deposits”); total deposits made to the contract less any partial withdrawals plus a minimum return (“minimum return”); or the highest contract value on any contract anniversary date through age 80. The highest contract value is increased by purchase payments and is decreased by withdrawals subsequent to that anniversary date in the same proportion that withdrawals reduce the contract value. As discussed in Note 6, certain features of these guarantees are accounted for as embedded derivative reserves, whereas other guarantees are accounted for as benefit reserves. Other guarantees contain characteristics of both and are accounted for under an approach that calculates the value of the embedded derivative reserve and the benefit reserve based on the specific characteristics of each GLB feature. We use derivative instruments to hedge our exposure to the risks and earnings volatility that result from the embedded derivatives for living benefits in certain of our variable annuity products. The change in fair value of these instruments tends to move in the opposite direction of the change in the value of the associated reserves. The net impact of these changes is reported as a component of realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). The “market consistent scenarios” used in the determination of the fair value of the GLB liability are similar to those used by an investment bank to value derivatives for which the pricing is not transparent and the aftermarket is nonexistent or illiquid. We use risk-neutral Monte Carlo simulations in our calculation to value the entire block of guarantees, which involve 100 unique scenarios per policy or approximately 49 million scenarios. The market consistent scenario assumptions, as of each valuation date, are those we view to be appropriate for a hypothetical market participant. The market consistent inputs include, but are not limited to, assumptions for capital markets (e.g., implied volatilities, correlation among indices, risk-free swap curve, etc.), policyholder behavior (e.g., policy lapse, rider utilization, etc.), mortality, risk margins, maintenance expenses and a margin for profit. We believe these assumptions are consistent with those that would be used by a market participant; however, as the related markets develop we will continue to reassess our assumptions. It is possible that different valuation techniques and assumptions could produce a materially different estimate of fair value.
Future Contract Benefits and Other Contract Holder Funds | Future Contract Benefits and Other Contract Holder Funds Future contract benefits represent liability reserves that we have established and carry based on estimates of how much we will need to pay for future benefits and claims. Other contract holder funds represent liabilities for fixed account values, including the fixed portion of variable, dividends payable, premium deposit funds, undistributed earnings on participating business and other contract holder funds as well as the carrying value of DFEL discussed above. The liabilities for future contract benefits and claim reserves for UL and VUL insurance policies consist of contract account balances that are equal to deposits net of withdrawals, excluding surrender charges and fees, plus interest credited, and if applicable an additional reserve for other insurance benefit guarantees. The liabilities for future insurance contract benefits and claim reserves for traditional life policies are computed using assumptions for investment yields, mortality and withdrawals based principally on generally accepted actuarial methods and assumptions at the time of contract issue. Investment yield assumptions for traditional direct individual life reserves for all contracts range from 2.25% to 7.75% depending on the time of contract issue. The investment yield assumptions for immediate and deferred paid-up annuities range from 1.25% to 12.75%. These investment yield assumptions are intended to represent an estimation of the interest rate experience for the period that these contract benefits are payable. The liabilities for future claim reserves for variable annuity products containing GDB features are calculated by estimating the present value of total expected benefit payments over the life of the contract from inception divided by the present value of total expected assessments over the life of the contract (“benefit ratio”) multiplied by the cumulative assessments recorded from the contract inception through the balance sheet date less the cumulative GDB payments plus interest on the liability. The change in the liability for a period is the benefit ratio multiplied by the assessments recorded for the period less GDB claims paid in the period plus interest. As experience or assumption changes result in a change in expected benefit payments or assessments, the benefit ratio is unlocked, that is, recalculated using the updated expected benefit payments and assessments over the life of the contract since inception. The revised benefit ratio is then applied to the liability calculation described above, with the resulting change in liability reported in benefits on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). The liability for future claim reserves for long-term disability contracts for incurred and reported claims are calculated based on assumptions as to interest, claim resolution rates and offsets for other insurance including social security. Claim resolution rate assumptions and social security offsets are based on our actual experience. The interest rate assumptions used for discounting claim reserves are based on projected portfolio yield rates, after consideration for defaults and investment expenses, for assets supporting the liabilities. The incurred but not reported claim reserves are based on our experiences as to the reporting lags and ultimate loss experience. Claim reserves are subject to revision as current claim experience and projections of future factors affecting claim experience change. Claim reserves do not include a provision for adverse deviation. With respect to our future contract benefits and other contract holder funds, we continually review overall reserve position, reserving techniques and reinsurance arrangements. As experience develops and new information becomes known, liabilities are adjusted as deemed necessary. The effects of changes in estimates are included in the operating results for the period in which such changes occur. The business written or assumed by us includes participating life insurance contracts, under which the contract holder is entitled to share in the earnings of such contracts via receipt of dividends. The dividend scale for participating policies is reviewed annually and may be adjusted to reflect recent experience and future expectations. As of December 31, 2019 and 2018, participating policies comprised less than 1% of the face amount of business in force, and dividend expenses were $51 million, $56 million and $57 million for the years ended December 31, 2019, 2018 and 2017, respectively. Liabilities for the secondary guarantees on UL-type products are calculated by multiplying the benefit ratio by the cumulative assessments recorded from contract inception through the balance sheet date less the cumulative secondary guarantee benefit payments plus interest. If experience or assumption changes result in a new benefit ratio, the reserves are adjusted to reflect the changes in a manner similar to the unlocking of DAC, VOBA, DFEL and DSI. The accounting for secondary guarantee benefits impacts, and is impacted by, EGPs used to calculate amortization of DAC, VOBA, DFEL and DSI. Certain of our variable annuity contracts reported within future contract benefits contain GLB reserves embedded derivatives, a portion of which may be reported in either other assets or other liabilities, and include guaranteed interest and similar contracts, that are carried at fair value on our Consolidated Balance Sheets, which represents approximate exit price including an estimate for our NPR. Certain of these features have elements of both insurance benefits and embedded derivatives. Through our hybrid accounting approach, for reserve calculation purposes we assign product cash flows to the embedded derivative or insurance portion of the reserves based on the life-contingent nature of the benefits. We classify these GLB reserves embedded derivatives items in Level 3 within the hierarchy levels described above in “Fair Value Measurement.” We report the insurance portion of the reserves in future contract benefits. The fair value of our indexed annuity contracts is based on their approximate surrender values.
Borrowed Funds | Borrowed Funds LNC’s short-term borrowings are defined as borrowings with contractual or expected maturities of one year or less. Long-term borrowings have contractual or expected maturities greater than one year.
Contingencies and Commitments | Contingencies and Commitments Contingencies arising from environmental remediation costs, regulatory judgments, claims, assessments, guarantees, litigation, recourse reserves, fines, penalties and other sources are recorded when deemed probable and reasonably estimable.
Fee Income | Fee Income Fee income for investment and interest-sensitive life insurance contracts consists of asset-based fees, percent of premium charges, contract administration charges and surrender charges that are assessed against contract holder account balances. Investment products consist primarily of individual and group variable and fixed deferred annuities. Interest-sensitive life insurance products include UL insurance, VUL insurance and other interest-sensitive life insurance policies. These products include life insurance sold to individuals, corporate-owned life insurance and bank-owned life insurance. In bifurcating the embedded derivative of our GLB features on our variable annuity products, we attribute to the embedded derivative the portion of total fees collected from the contract holder that relate to the GLB riders (the “attributed fees”), which are not reported within fee income on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). These attributed fees represent the present value of future claims expected to be paid for the GLB at the inception of the contract plus a margin that a theoretical market participant would include for risk/profit and are reported within realized gain (loss) on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). The timing of revenue recognition as it relates to fees assessed on investment contracts is determined based on the nature of such fees. Asset-based fees, cost of insurance and contract administration charges are assessed on a daily or monthly basis and recognized as revenue as performance obligations are met, over the period underlying customer assets are owned or advisory services are provided. Wholesaling-related 12b-1 fees received from separate account fund sponsors as compensation for servicing the underlying mutual funds are recorded as revenues based on a contractual percentage of the market value of mutual fund assets over the period shares are owned by customers. Net investment advisory fees related to asset management of certain separate account funds are recorded as revenues based on a contractual percentage of the customer’s managed assets over the period advisory services are provided. Percent of premium charges are assessed at the time of premium payment and recognized as revenue when assessed and earned. Certain amounts assessed that represent compensation for services to be provided in future periods are reported as unearned revenue and recognized in income over the periods benefited. Surrender charges are recognized upon surrender of a contract by the contract holder in accordance with contractual terms. For investment and interest-sensitive life insurance contracts, the amounts collected from contract holders are considered deposits and are not included in revenue.
Insurance Premiums | Insurance Premiums Our insurance premiums for traditional life insurance and group insurance products are recognized as revenue when due from the contract holder. Our traditional life insurance products include those products with fixed and guaranteed premiums and benefits and consist primarily of whole life insurance, limited-payment life insurance, term life insurance and certain annuities with life contingencies. Our group insurance products consist primarily of term life, disability and dental.
Net Investment Income | Net Investment Income We earn investment income on the underlying general account investments supporting our fixed products less related expenses. Dividends and interest income, recorded in net investment income, are recognized when earned. Amortization of premiums and accretion of discounts on investments in debt securities are reflected in net investment income over the contractual terms of the investments in a manner that produces a constant effective yield. For CLOs and MBS, included in the trading and fixed maturity AFS securities portfolios, we recognize income using a constant effective yield based on anticipated prepayments and the estimated economic life of the securities. When actual prepayments differ significantly from originally anticipated prepayments, the retrospective effective yield is recalculated to reflect actual payments to date and a catch up adjustment is recorded in the current period. In addition, the new effective yield, which reflects anticipated future payments, is used prospectively. Any adjustments resulting from changes in effective yield are reflected in net investment income on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).
Realized Gain (Loss) | Realized Gain (Loss) Realized gain (loss) includes realized gains and losses from the sale of investments, write-downs for other-than-temporary impairments of investments, changes in fair value of equity securities, certain derivative and embedded derivative gains and losses, gains and losses on the sale of subsidiaries and businesses and net gains and losses on reinsurance embedded derivatives and trading securities. Realized gains and losses on the sale of investments are determined using the specific identification method. Realized gain (loss) is recognized in net income, net of associated amortization of DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL. Realized gain (loss) is also net of allocations of investment gains and losses to certain contract holders and certain funds withheld on reinsurance arrangements for which we have a contractual obligation.
Other Revenues | Other Revenues Other revenues consists primarily of fees attributable to broker-dealer services recorded as performance obligations are met, either at the time of sale or over time based on a contractual percentage of customer account values, changes in the market value of our seed capital investments, and proceeds from reinsurance recaptures. The broker-dealer services primarily relate to our retail sales network and consist of commission revenue for the sale of non-affiliated securities recorded on a trade date basis and advisory fee income. Advisory fee income is asset-based revenues recorded as earned based on a contractual percentage of customer account values. Other revenues earned by our Group Protection segment consist of fees from administrative services performed, which are recognized as performance obligations are met over the terms of the underlying agreements.
Interest Credited | Interest Credited We credit interest to our contract holder account balances based on the contractual terms supporting our products.
Benefits | Benefits Benefits for UL and other interest-sensitive life insurance products include benefit claims incurred during the period in excess of contract account balances. Benefits also include the change in reserves for life insurance products with secondary guarantee benefits, annuity products with guaranteed death and living benefits and certain annuities with life contingencies. For traditional life, group health and disability income products, benefits are recognized when incurred in a manner consistent with the related premium recognition policies.
Strategic Digitization Expense | Strategic Digitization Expense Strategic digitization expense consists primarily of costs related to our enterprise-wide digitization initiative.
Pensions and Other Post Retirement Benefit Plan | Pension and Other Postretirement Benefit Plans Pursuant to the accounting rules for our obligations to employees and agents under our various pension and other postretirement benefit plans, we are required to make a number of assumptions to estimate related liabilities and expenses. The mortality assumption is based on actual and anticipated plan experience, determined using acceptable actuarial methods. We use assumptions for the weighted-average discount rate and expected return on plan assets to estimate pension expense. The discount rate assumptions are determined using an analysis of current market information and the projected benefit flows associated with these plans. The expected long-term rate of return on plan assets is based on historical and projected future rates of return on the funds invested in the plan. The calculation of our accumulated postretirement benefit obligation also uses an assumption of weighted-average annual rate of increase in the per capita cost of covered benefits, which reflects a health care cost trend rate.
Stock-Based Compensation | Stock-Based Compensation In general, we expense the fair value of stock awards included in our incentive compensation plans. As of the date our stock awards are approved, the fair value of stock options is determined using a Black-Scholes options valuation methodology, and the fair value of other stock awards is based upon the market value of the stock. The fair value of the awards is expensed over the performance or service period, which generally corresponds to the vesting period, and is recognized as an increase to common stock in stockholders’ equity. We apply an estimated forfeiture rate to our accrual of compensation cost. We classify certain stock awards as liabilities. For these awards, the settlement value is classified as a liability on our Consolidated Balance Sheets, and the liability is marked-to-market through net income at the end of each reporting period. Stock-based compensation expense is reflected in commissions and other expenses on our Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).
Interest and Debt Expense | Interest and Debt Expense Interest expense on our short-term and long-term debt is recognized as due and any associated premiums, discounts and costs are amortized (accreted) over the term of the related borrowing utilizing the effective interest method. In addition, gains or losses related to certain derivative instruments associated with debt are recognized in interest and debt expense during the period of the change.
Income Taxes | Income Taxes We file a U.S. consolidated income tax return that includes all of our eligible subsidiaries. Ineligible subsidiaries file separate individual corporate tax returns. Subsidiaries operating outside of the U.S. are taxed, and income tax expense is recorded, based on applicable foreign statutes. Deferred income taxes are recognized, based on enacted rates, when assets and liabilities have different values for financial statement and tax reporting purposes. A valuation allowance is recorded to the extent required. Considerable judgment and the use of estimates are required in determining whether a valuation allowance is necessary and, if so, the amount of such valuation allowance. In evaluating the need for a valuation allowance, we consider many factors, including: the nature and character of the deferred tax assets and liabilities; taxable income in prior carryback years; future reversals of temporary differences; the length of time carryovers can be utilized; and any tax planning strategies we would employ to avoid a tax benefit from expiring unused.
Foreign Currency Translation | Foreign Currency Translation The balance sheet accounts and income statement items of foreign subsidiaries, reported in functional currencies other than the U.S. dollar are translated at the current and average exchange rates for the year, respectively. Resulting translation adjustments and other translation adjustments for foreign currency transactions that affect cash flows are reported in AOCI, a component of stockholders’ equity.
Earnings Per Share | Earnings Per Share Basic earnings per share (“EPS”) is computed by dividing earnings available to common shareholders by the average common shares outstanding. Diluted EPS is computed assuming the conversion or exercise of dilutive convertible preferred securities, nonvested stock, stock options, performance share units and warrants outstanding during the year. Our deferred compensation plans allow participants the option to diversify from LNC stock to other investment alternatives. When calculating our weighted-average dilutive shares, we presume the investment option will be settled in cash and exclude these shares from our calculation, unless the effect of settlement in shares would be more dilutive to our diluted EPS calculation. For any period where a net loss is experienced, shares used in the diluted EPS calculation represent basic shares, as the use of diluted shares would result in a lower loss per share.

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- Definition Disclosure of accounting policy for determining revenue and timing of recognition as revenue of premiums received from policyholders, insureds and other insurance entities (the effects of ceding and assuming insurance policy risks) for the entity's insurance products. + References Reference 1: http://fasb.org/us-gaap/role/ref/legacyRef -Publisher FASB -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Topic 235 -SubTopic 10 -Section 50 -Paragraph 3 -URI http://asc.fasb.org/extlink&oid=84158767&loc=d3e18780-107790 Reference 2: http://fasb.org/us-gaap/role/ref/legacyRef -Publisher FASB -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Topic 944 -SubTopic 605 -Section 25 -Paragraph 2 -URI http://asc.fasb.org/extlink&oid=6486390&loc=d3e25718-158539 Reference 3: http://fasb.org/us-gaap/role/ref/legacyRef -Publisher FASB -Name Accounting Standards Codification -Topic 944 -SubTopic 605 -Section 25 -Paragraph 1 -URI http://asc.fasb.org/extlink&oid=6486390&loc=d3e25715-158539 + Details
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