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Investments | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2017
Investments [Abstract] |
Investments | Investments (a) Net unrealized gains on investments included in OCI by asset class were as follows for the years ended December 31, 2017, 2016, and 2015:
($ in thousands) |  | 2017 |  | 2016 |  | 2015
AFS securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed income securities |  | $ | 85,806 |  |  | 38,781 |  |  | 55,689 |
Equity securities |  | 38,894 |  |  | 25,864 |  |  | 13,235 |
Total AFS securities |  | 124,700 |  |  | 64,645 |  |  | 68,924 |
HTM securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fixed income securities |  | (21 | ) |  | 159 |  |  | 300 |
Total HTM securities |  | (21 | ) |  | 159 |  |  | 300 |
Total net unrealized gains |  | 124,679 |  |  | 64,804 |  |  | 69,224 |
Deferred income tax |  | (44,103 | ) |  | (22,681 | ) |  | (24,228 | )
Net unrealized gains, net of deferred income tax |  | 80,576 |  |  | 42,123 |  |  | 44,996 |
Increase (decrease) in net unrealized gains in OCI, net of deferred income tax |  | $ | 38,453 |  |  | (2,873 | ) |  | (35,398 | )
(b) The amortized cost, net unrealized gains and losses, carrying value, unrecognized holding gains and losses, and fair value of HTM fixed income securities were as follows:
December 31, 2017 |  |  |  | Net |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | Unrealized |  |  |  | Unrecognized |  | Unrecognized |  |
|  | Amortized |  | Gains |  | Carrying |  | Holding |  | Holding |  | Fair
($ in thousands) |  | Cost |  | (Losses) |  | Value |  | Gains |  | Losses |  | Value
Obligations of state and political subdivisions |  | $ | 25,154 |  |  | 84 |  |  | 25,238 |  |  | 1,023 |  |  | — |  |  | 26,261 |
Corporate securities |  | 16,996 |  |  | (105 | ) |  | 16,891 |  |  | 1,003 |  |  | (55 | ) |  | 17,839 |
Total HTM fixed income securities |  | $ | 42,150 |  |  | (21 | ) |  | 42,129 |  |  | 2,026 |  |  | (55 | ) |  | 44,100 |
December 31, 2016 |  |  |  | Net |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | Unrealized |  |  |  | Unrecognized |  | Unrecognized |  |
|  | Amortized |  | Gains |  | Carrying |  | Holding |  | Holding |  | Fair
($ in thousands) |  | Cost |  | (Losses) |  | Value |  | Gains |  | Losses |  | Value
Obligations of state and political subdivisions |  | 77,466 |  |  | 317 |  |  | 77,783 |  |  | 2,133 |  |  | — |  |  | 79,916 |
Corporate securities |  | 22,711 |  |  | (143 | ) |  | 22,568 |  |  | 1,665 |  |  | (158 | ) |  | 24,075 |
CMBS |  | 1,220 |  |  | (15 | ) |  | 1,205 |  |  | 15 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,220 |
Total HTM fixed income securities |  | $ | 101,397 |  |  | 159 |  |  | 101,556 |  |  | 3,813 |  |  | (158 | ) |  | 105,211 |
Unrecognized holding gains and losses of HTM securities are not reflected in the Financial Statements, as they represent fair value fluctuations from the later of: (i) the date a security is designated as HTM either through purchase or transfer from AFS; or (ii) the date that an OTTI charge is recognized on an HTM security, through the date of the balance sheet. (c) The cost/amortized cost, unrealized gains and losses, and fair value of AFS securities were as follows:
December 31, 2017 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | Cost/ |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | Amortized |  | Unrealized |  | Unrealized |  | Fair
($ in thousands) |  | Cost |  | Gains |  | Losses |  | Value
AFS fixed income securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agencies |  | $ | 49,326 |  |  | 647 |  |  | (233 | ) |  | 49,740 |
Foreign government |  | 18,040 |  |  | 526 |  |  | (11 | ) |  | 18,555 |
Obligations of states and political subdivisions |  | 1,539,307 |  |  | 44,245 |  |  | (582 | ) |  | 1,582,970 |
Corporate securities |  | 1,588,339 |  |  | 30,891 |  |  | (1,762 | ) |  | 1,617,468 |
CLO and other ABS |  | 789,152 |  |  | 6,508 |  |  | (202 | ) |  | 795,458 |
CMBS |  | 382,727 |  |  | 1,563 |  |  | (841 | ) |  | 383,449 |
RMBS |  | 709,825 |  |  | 6,487 |  |  | (1,430 | ) |  | 714,882 |
Total AFS fixed income securities |  | 5,076,716 |  |  | 90,867 |  |  | (5,061 | ) |  | 5,162,522 |
AFS equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stock |  | 129,696 |  |  | 38,287 |  |  | (226 | ) |  | 167,757 |
Preferred stock |  | 14,115 |  |  | 904 |  |  | (71 | ) |  | 14,948 |
Total AFS equity securities |  | 143,811 |  |  | 39,191 |  |  | (297 | ) |  | 182,705 |
Total AFS securities |  | $ | 5,220,527 |  |  | 130,058 |  |  | (5,358 | ) |  | 5,345,227 |
December 31, 2016 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | Cost/ |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | Amortized |  | Unrealized |  | Unrealized |  | Fair
($ in thousands) |  | Cost |  | Gains |  | Losses |  | Value
AFS fixed income securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agencies |  | $ | 75,139 |  |  | 2,230 |  |  | (36 | ) |  | 77,333 |
Foreign government |  | 26,559 |  |  | 322 |  |  | (16 | ) |  | 26,865 |
Obligations of states and political subdivisions |  | 1,366,287 |  |  | 18,610 |  |  | (5,304 | ) |  | 1,379,593 |
Corporate securities |  | 1,976,556 |  |  | 27,057 |  |  | (5,860 | ) |  | 1,997,753 |
CLO and other ABS |  | 527,876 |  |  | 1,439 |  |  | (355 | ) |  | 528,960 |
CMBS |  | 256,356 |  |  | 1,514 |  |  | (1,028 | ) |  | 256,842 |
RMBS |  | 524,986 |  |  | 3,006 |  |  | (2,798 | ) |  | 525,194 |
Total AFS fixed income securities |  | 4,753,759 |  |  | 54,178 |  |  | (15,397 | ) |  | 4,792,540 |
AFS equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stock |  | 104,663 |  |  | 26,250 |  |  | (305 | ) |  | 130,608 |
Preferred stock |  | 16,226 |  |  | 274 |  |  | (355 | ) |  | 16,145 |
Total AFS equity securities |  | 120,889 |  |  | 26,524 |  |  | (660 | ) |  | 146,753 |
Total AFS securities |  | $ | 4,874,648 |  |  | 80,702 |  |  | (16,057 | ) |  | 4,939,293 |
Unrealized gains and losses of AFS securities represent fair value fluctuations from the later of: (i) the date a security is designated as AFS; or (ii) the date that an OTTI charge is recognized on an AFS security, through the date of the balance sheet. These unrealized gains and losses are recorded in AOCI on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. (d) The severity of impairment on the securities in an unrealized/unrecognized loss position averaged 1% of amortized cost at December 31, 2017 and December 31, 2016. Quantitative information regarding unrealized losses on our AFS portfolio is provided below. Our HTM portfolio had $0.1 million in unrealized/unrecognized losses at December 31, 2017 and no unrealized/unrecognized losses at December 31, 2016.
December 31, 2017 |  | Less than 12 months |  | 12 months or longer |  | Total
($ in thousands) |  | Fair Value |  | Unrealized Losses |  | Fair Value |  | Unrealized Losses |  | Fair Value |  | Unrealized Losses
AFS fixed income securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agencies |  | $ | 23,516 |  |  | (233 | ) |  | 250 |  |  | — |  |  | 23,766 |  |  | (233 | )
Foreign government |  | 1,481 |  |  | (11 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 1,481 |  |  | (11 | )
Obligations of states and political subdivisions |  | 107,514 |  |  | (422 | ) |  | 14,139 |  |  | (160 | ) |  | 121,653 |  |  | (582 | )
Corporate securities |  | 238,326 |  |  | (1,744 | ) |  | 3,228 |  |  | (18 | ) |  | 241,554 |  |  | (1,762 | )
CLO and other ABS |  | 74,977 |  |  | (196 | ) |  | 1,655 |  |  | (6 | ) |  | 76,632 |  |  | (202 | )
CMBS |  | 154,267 |  |  | (773 | ) |  | 5,214 |  |  | (68 | ) |  | 159,481 |  |  | (841 | )
RMBS |  | 269,485 |  |  | (1,285 | ) |  | 11,200 |  |  | (145 | ) |  | 280,685 |  |  | (1,430 | )
Total AFS fixed income securities |  | 869,566 |  |  | (4,664 | ) |  | 35,686 |  |  | (397 | ) |  | 905,252 |  |  | (5,061 | )
AFS equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stock |  | 4,727 |  |  | (226 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 4,727 |  |  | (226 | )
Preferred stock |  | 3,833 |  |  | (71 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 3,833 |  |  | (71 | )
Total AFS equity securities |  | 8,560 |  |  | (297 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 8,560 |  |  | (297 | )
Total AFS securities |  | $ | 878,126 |  |  | (4,961 | ) |  | 35,686 |  |  | (397 | ) |  | 913,812 |  |  | (5,358 | )
December 31, 2016 |  | Less than 12 months |  | 12 months or longer |  | Total
($ in thousands) |  | Fair Value |  | Unrealized Losses |  | Fair Value |  | Unrealized Losses |  | Fair Value |  | Unrealized Losses
AFS fixed income securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agencies |  | $ | 6,419 |  |  | (36 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | $ | 6,419 |  |  | $ | (36 | )
Foreign government |  | 13,075 |  |  | (16 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 13,075 |  |  | (16 | )
Obligations of states and political subdivisions |  | 306,509 |  |  | (5,304 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 306,509 |  |  | (5,304 | )
Corporate securities |  | 462,902 |  |  | (5,771 | ) |  | 4,913 |  |  | (89 | ) |  | 467,815 |  |  | (5,860 | )
CLO and other ABS |  | 189,795 |  |  | (354 | ) |  | 319 |  |  | (1 | ) |  | 190,114 |  |  | (355 | )
CMBS |  | 82,492 |  |  | (1,021 | ) |  | 1,645 |  |  | (7 | ) |  | 84,137 |  |  | (1,028 | )
RMBS |  | 279,480 |  |  | (2,489 | ) |  | 8,749 |  |  | (309 | ) |  | 288,229 |  |  | (2,798 | )
Total AFS fixed income securities |  | 1,340,672 |  |  | (14,991 | ) |  | 15,626 |  |  | (406 | ) |  | 1,356,298 |  |  | (15,397 | )
AFS equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stock |  | 11,271 |  |  | (305 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 11,271 |  |  | (305 | )
Preferred stock |  | 6,168 |  |  | (355 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 6,168 |  |  | (355 | )
Total AFS equity securities |  | 17,439 |  |  | (660 | ) |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 17,439 |  |  | (660 | )
Total AFS securities |  | $ | 1,358,111 |  |  | (15,651 | ) |  | 15,626 |  |  | (406 | ) |  | $ | 1,373,737 |  |  | $ | (16,057 | )
We do not intend to sell any of the securities in the tables above, nor do we believe we will be required to sell any of these securities. Additionally, we have reviewed these securities in accordance with our OTTI policy, as described in Note 2. “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies” of this Form 10-K and have concluded that they are temporarily impaired. This conclusion reflects our current judgment as to the financial position and future prospects of the entity that issued the security and underlying collateral. If our judgment about an individual security changes in the future, we may ultimately record a credit loss after having originally concluded that one did not exist, which could have a material impact on our net income and financial position in future periods. (e) Fixed income securities at December 31, 2017, by contractual maturity are shown below. MBS are included in the maturity tables using the estimated average life of each security. Expected maturities may differ from contractual maturities because issuers may have the right to call or prepay obligations with or without call or prepayment penalties. Listed below are the contractual maturities of fixed income securities at December 31, 2017:
|  | AFS |  | HTM
($ in thousands) |  | Fair Value |  | Carrying Value |  | Fair Value
Due in one year or less |  | $ | 315,857 |  |  | 10,997 |  |  | 11,168 |
Due after one year through five years |  | 2,099,529 |  |  | 23,035 |  |  | 24,235 |
Due after five years through 10 years |  | 2,510,294 |  |  | 8,097 |  |  | 8,697 |
Due after 10 years |  | 236,842 |  |  | — |  |  | — |
Total fixed income securities |  | $ | 5,162,522 |  |  | 42,129 |  |  | 44,100 |
(f) The following table summarizes our other investment portfolio by strategy:
Other Investments |  | December 31, 2017 |  | December 31, 2016
($ in thousands) |  | Carrying Value |  | Remaining Commitment |  | Maximum Exposure to Loss 1 |  | Carrying Value |  | Remaining Commitment |  | Maximum Exposure to Loss 1
Alternative Investments |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Private equity |  | $ | 52,251 |  |  | 99,026 |  |  | 151,277 |  |  | 41,135 |  |  | 76,774 |  |  | 117,909 |
Private credit |  | 37,743 |  |  | 94,959 |  |  | 132,702 |  |  | 28,193 |  |  | 40,613 |  |  | 68,806 |
Real assets |  | 25,379 |  |  | 27,014 |  |  | 52,393 |  |  | 14,486 |  |  | 22,899 |  |  | 37,385 |
Total alternative investments |  | 115,373 |  |  | 220,999 |  |  | 336,372 |  |  | 83,814 |  |  | 140,286 |  |  | 224,100 |
Other securities 2 |  | 16,895 |  |  | — |  |  | 16,895 |  |  | 18,583 |  |  | 3,400 |  |  | 21,983 |
Total other investments |  | $ | 132,268 |  |  | 220,999 |  |  | 353,267 |  |  | 102,397 |  |  | 143,686 |  |  | 246,083 |
1 The maximum exposure to loss includes both the carrying value of these investments and the related unfunded commitments. In addition, tax credits that have been previously recognized in Other securities are subject to the risk of recapture, which we do not consider significant. 2 Other securities primarily consists of tax credit investments. We have reviewed various investments included in the table above and have concluded that they are VIEs, but that we are not the primary beneficiary and therefore, consolidation is not required. We do not have a future obligation to fund losses or debts on behalf of these investments; however, we are contractually committed to make additional investments up to the remaining commitment outlined above. We have not provided any non-contractual financial support at any time during 2017 or 2016. The following is a description of our alternative investment strategies: Our private equity strategy includes the following:
• | Primary Private Equity: This strategy makes private equity investments, primarily in established large and middle market companies across diverse industries globally.
• | Secondary Private Equity: This strategy purchases seasoned private equity funds from investors desiring liquidity prior to normal fund termination. Investments are made across all sectors of the private equity market, including leveraged buyouts ("LBO"), venture capital, distressed securities, mezzanine financing, real estate, and infrastructure.
• | Venture Capital: In general, these investments are made principally by investing in equity securities of privately-held corporations, for long-term capital appreciation. This strategy makes private equity investments in growth equity and buyout partnerships.
Our private credit strategy includes the following:
• | Middle Market Lending: This strategy provides privately negotiated loans to U.S. middle market companies. Typically, these are floating rate, senior secured loans diversified across industries. Loans can be made to private equity sponsor-backed companies or non-sponsored companies to finance LBOs, recapitalizations, and acquisitions.
• | Mezzanine Financing: This strategy provides privately negotiated fixed income securities, generally with an equity component, to LBO firms and private and publicly traded large, mid, and small-cap companies to finance LBOs, recapitalizations, and acquisitions.
• | Distressed Debt: This strategy makes direct and indirect investments in debt and equity securities of companies that are experiencing financial and/or operational distress. Investments include buying indebtedness of bankrupt or financially troubled companies, small balance loan portfolios, special situations and capital structure arbitrage trades, commercial real estate mortgages, and similar non-U.S. securities and debt obligations.
Our real assets strategy includes the following:
• | Energy & Power Generation: This strategy makes energy and power generation investments in cash flow generating infrastructure assets. Energy investments are made in a variety of industries including oil, natural gas, and coal. These investments are diversified across the energy supply chain and include assets in the exploration and production, pipeline, and refining sectors. Power generation includes investments in: (i) conventional power, such as natural gas and oil; (ii) renewable power, such as wind and solar; and (iii) electric transmission and distribution.
• | Real Estate: This strategy invests in real estate in North America, Europe, and Asia via direct property ownership, joint ventures, mortgages, and investments in equity and debt instruments.
Our alternative investment strategies generally employ low or moderate levels of leverage and use hedging only to reduce foreign exchange or interest rate volatility. At this time, our alternative investment strategies do not include hedge funds. We cannot redeem our investments with the general partners of these investments; however, occasionally these partnerships can be traded on the secondary market. Once liquidation is triggered by clauses within the limited partnership agreements or at the funds’ stated end date, we will receive our final allocation of capital and any earned appreciation of the underlying investments, assuming we have not divested ourselves of our partnership interests prior to that time. We currently receive distributions from these alternative investments through the realization of the underlying investments in the limited partnerships. We anticipate that the general partners of these alternative investments will liquidate their underlying investment portfolios through 2032. The following tables set forth summarized financial information for our other investments portfolio, including the portion not owned by us. The investments are carried under the equity method of accounting. The last line in the income statement information table below reflects our share of the aggregate income, which is the portion included in our Financial Statements. As the majority of these investments report results to us on a one quarter lag, the summarized financial statement information is as of, and for the 12-month period ended, September 30:
Balance Sheet Information |  |  |  |
September 30, |  |  |  |
($ in millions) |  | 2017 |  | 2016
Investments |  | $ | 21,046 |  |  | 11,244 |
Total assets |  | 22,357 |  |  | 12,075 |
Total liabilities |  | 4,767 |  |  | 1,802 |
Total partners’ capital |  | 17,590 |  |  | 10,273 |
Income Statement Information |  |  |  |  |  |
12 months ended September 30, |  |  |  |  |  |
($ in millions) |  | 2017 |  | 2016 |  | 2015
Net investment (loss) income |  | $ | (143 | ) |  | (44 | ) |  | 129 |
Realized gains |  | 325 |  |  | 1,374 |  |  | 1,187 |
Net change in unrealized appreciation (depreciation) |  | 2,894 |  |  | (719 | ) |  | (1,364 | )
Net income |  | $ | 3,076 |  |  | 611 |  |  | (48 | )
Insurance Subsidiaries' alternative investments income (loss) |  | 12.7 |  |  | 3.1 |  |  | (1.9 | )
(g) We did not have exposure to any credit concentration risk of a single issuer greater than 10% of our stockholders' equity, other than certain U.S. government agencies, as of December 31, 2017 or December 31, 2016. (h) We have pledged certain AFS fixed income securities as collateral related to our relationships with the Federal Home Loan Bank of Indianapolis ("FHLBI") and the Federal Home Loan Bank of New York ("FHLBNY"). In addition, certain securities were on deposit with various state and regulatory agencies at December 31, 2017 to comply with insurance laws. We retain all rights regarding securities pledged as collateral. The following table summarizes the market value of these securities at December 31, 2017:
($ in millions) |  | FHLBI Collateral |  | FHLBNY Collateral |  | State and Regulatory Deposits |  | Total
U.S. government and government agencies |  | $ | 3.0 |  |  | — |  |  | 22.6 |  |  | 25.6 |
Obligations of states and political subdivisions |  | — |  |  | — |  |  | 3.1 |  |  | 3.1 |
CMBS |  | 6.2 |  |  | 14.1 |  |  | — |  |  | 20.3 |
RMBS |  | 56.3 |  |  | 59.6 |  |  | — |  |  | 115.9 |
Total pledged as collateral |  | $ | 65.5 |  |  | 73.7 |  |  | 25.7 |  |  | 164.9 |
(i) The components of pre-tax net investment income earned were as follows:
($ in thousands) |  | 2017 |  | 2016 |  | 2015
Fixed income securities |  | $ | 153,230 |  |  | 129,306 |  |  | 123,230 |
Equity securities |  | 6,442 |  |  | 7,368 |  |  | 9,161 |
Short-term investments |  | 1,526 |  |  | 686 |  |  | 112 |
Other investments |  | 12,871 |  |  | 2,940 |  |  | (1,890 | )
Investment expenses |  | (12,187 | ) |  | (9,546 | ) |  | (9,297 | )
Net investment income earned |  | $ | 161,882 |  |  | 130,754 |  |  | 121,316 |
(j) The following tables summarize OTTI by asset type for the periods indicated:
2017 |  |  |  |  |  | Recognized in Earnings
($ in thousands) |  | Gross |  | Included in OCI |
AFS fixed income securities: |  |  |  |  |  |
U.S. government and government agencies |  | $ | 36 |  |  | — |  |  | 36 |
Obligations of states and political subdivisions |  | 612 |  |  | — |  |  | 612 |
Corporate securities |  | 587 |  |  | — |  |  | 587 |
CLO and other ABS |  | 96 |  |  | — |  |  | 96 |
CMBS |  | 670 |  |  | — |  |  | 670 |
RMBS |  | 1,183 |  |  | (36 | ) |  | 1,219 |
Total AFS fixed income securities |  | 3,184 |  |  | (36 | ) |  | 3,220 |
AFS equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stock |  | 1,435 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,435 |
Total AFS equity securities |  | 1,435 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,435 |
Other investments |  | $ | 190 |  |  | — |  |  | 190 |
Total OTTI losses |  | $ | 4,809 |  |  | (36 | ) |  | 4,845 |
2016 |  |  |  |  |  | Recognized in Earnings
($ in thousands) |  | Gross |  | Included in OCI |
AFS fixed income securities: |  |  |  |  |  |
Obligations of states and political subdivisons |  | $ | 2,797 |  |  | — |  |  | 2,797 |
Corporate securities |  | 1,880 |  |  | — |  |  | 1,880 |
CLO and other ABS |  | 19 |  |  | — |  |  | 19 |
CMBS |  | 220 |  |  | — |  |  | 220 |
RMBS |  | 275 |  |  | 10 |  |  | 265 |
Total AFS fixed income securities |  | 5,191 |  |  | 10 |  |  | 5,181 |
AFS equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stock |  | 3,316 |  |  | — |  |  | 3,316 |
Preferred stock |  | 2 |  |  | — |  |  | 2 |
Total AFS equity securities |  | 3,318 |  |  | — |  |  | 3,318 |
Total OTTI losses |  | $ | 8,509 |  |  | 10 |  |  | 8,499 |
2015 |  |  |  |  |  | Recognized in Earnings
($ in thousands) |  | Gross |  | Included in OCI |
AFS fixed income securities: |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Corporate securities |  | $ | 2,188 |  |  | — |  |  | 2,188 |
RMBS |  | 1 |  |  | — |  |  | 1 |
Total AFS fixed income securities |  | 2,189 |  |  | — |  |  | 2,189 |
AFS equity securities: |  |  |  |  |  |
Common stock |  | 15,996 |  |  | — |  |  | 15,996 |
Preferred stock |  | 181 |  |  | — |  |  | 181 |
Total AFS equity securities |  | 16,177 |  |  | — |  |  | 16,177 |
Total OTTI losses |  | $ | 18,366 |  |  | — |  |  | 18,366 |
The majority of the OTTI charges in both 2017 and 2016 were on securities for which we had the intent to sell to facilitate our fixed income strategy change to more actively manage the portfolio to maximize after-tax income and total return, while maintaining a similar level of credit quality and duration risk. Charges in 2015 related to equity securities for which we had the intent to sell in relation to our high-dividend yield strategy, with the remaining charges relating to securities that we did not believe would recover in the near term. (k) The components of net realized gains, excluding OTTI charges, were as follows:
($ in thousands) |  | 2017 |  | 2016 |  | 2015
HTM fixed income securities |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Gains |  | $ | 44 |  |  | 3 |  |  | 5 |
Losses |  | (1 | ) |  | (1 | ) |  | (1 | )
AFS fixed income securities |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Gains |  | 10,193 |  |  | 7,741 |  |  | 4,515 |
Losses |  | (3,292 | ) |  | (11,411 | ) |  | (312 | )
AFS equity securities |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Gains |  | 5,829 |  |  | 8,108 |  |  | 29,168 |
Losses |  | (1,200 | ) |  | (864 | ) |  | (1,347 | )
Short-term investments |  |  |  |  |  |
Gains |  | 2 |  |  | — |  |  | — |
Losses |  | (6 | ) |  | (13 | ) |  | — |
Other investments |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Gains |  | 494 |  |  | 3 |  |  | 162 |
Losses |  | (859 | ) |  | (4 | ) |  | (653 | )
Total net realized investment gains |  | $ | 11,204 |  |  | 3,562 |  |  | 31,537 |
Realized gains and losses on the sale of investments are determined on the basis of the cost of the specific investments sold. Proceeds from the sale of AFS securities were $1,235.9 million in 2017, $1,046.1 million in 2016, and $234.1 million in 2015. Net realized gains in the table above were driven by the following:
• | 2017: A higher trading volume in our fixed income securities portfolio related to a more active external investment management approach and opportunistic sales in our equity portfolio.
• | 2016: A repositioning of our equity portfolio partially offset by net losses in our AFS fixed income portfolio related to the change in our strategy to more actively manage this portfolio.
• | 2015: A change in our dividend strategy from a quantitative, model-driven stock selection strategy to a fundamentally-based stock selection approach that incorporates an assessment of the sustainability and growth rate of a company's dividends and future cash flow.

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