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Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies)

12 Months Ended

Dec. 31, 2024

The accompanying consolidated financial statements (“Financial Statements”) include the accounts of the Parent and its subsidiaries, and have been prepared in conformity with: (i) United States ("U.S.") generally accepted accounting principles ("GAAP"); and (ii) the rules and regulations of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”). All significant intercompany accounts and transactions are eliminated in consolidation.

Use of Estimates

The preparation of our Financial Statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported financial statement balances, as well as the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

Investments

Portfolio Composition and Presentation in the Consolidated Balance Sheet

Our investment portfolio is primarily comprised of fixed income securities. We also hold commercial mortgage loans ("CMLs"), equity securities, short-term investments, alternative investments, and other investments. A description of our portfolio holdings, and the related presentation in our Consolidated Balance Sheet, is provided below.

Fixed Income Investments

Our fixed income investments include our fixed income securities portfolio and our CML portfolio.

Fixed Income Securities

We hold the following types of securities in our fixed income securities portfolio:

•U.S. government and government agency obligations;

•Foreign government obligations;

•Obligations of states and political subdivisions, including special revenue and general obligation bonds;

•Corporate securities, which may include investment grade and below investment grade bonds, bank loan investments, redeemable preferred stock, and non-redeemable preferred stock with certain debt-like characteristics;

•Collateralized loan obligations ("CLOs") and other asset-backed securities ("ABS");

•Residential mortgage-backed securities ("RMBS"); and

•Commercial mortgage-backed securities ("CMBS").

We have designated substantially all of the holdings in our fixed income securities as available-for-sale ("AFS"). These securities are reported at fair value in our Consolidated Balance Sheet. The after-tax difference between fair value and cost or amortized cost is reflected in stockholders’ equity as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) ("AOCI").

The amortized cost of fixed income securities is adjusted for the amortization of premiums and the accretion of discounts over the expected life of the security using the effective yield method. Callable debt securities held at a premium are amortized to the earliest call date. Premiums and discounts arising from the purchase of RMBS, CMBS, CLO and other ABS are amortized over the expected life of the security based on future principal payments, giving additional consideration to prepayments. These prepayments are estimated based on historical and projected cash flows. Prepayment assumptions are reviewed quarterly and adjusted to reflect actual prepayments and changes in expectations. Future amortization of any premium and/or discount is adjusted to reflect the revised assumptions.

Accrued interest on our fixed income securities is recorded as a component of “Accrued investment income” on our Consolidated Balance Sheet. If accrued interest is due but not paid within 90 days, we reverse the delinquent amount and record this reversal through earnings as a component of “Net investment income earned” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

CMLs

CMLs are loans secured by commercial property, such as an office building, multi-family apartment complex, industrial warehouse, or shopping center. We may acquire investments in CMLs through (i) direct originations under a loan syndication arrangement or (ii) a marketplace purchase. We record our investment in CMLs on the settlement date of the loan. Our CMLs are reported at amortized cost, net of any allowance for credit losses ("ACL"), on our Consolidated Balance Sheet. Interest is recorded using the effective yield method and accrued interest on our CMLs is recorded as a component of “Accrued investment income” on our Consolidated Balance Sheet.

Other Portfolio Holdings

Equity securities may include common and non-redeemable preferred stocks. Equity securities with readily determinable fair values are reported at fair value. Equity securities without readily determinable fair values are reported at net asset value ("NAV") as a practical expedient.

Short-term investments may include money market instruments, savings accounts, commercial paper, and fixed income securities purchased with a maturity of less than one year. We may also enter into reverse repurchase agreements that are included in short-term investments. These repurchase agreements are fully collateralized by high-quality, readily-marketable instruments that support the principal amount. At maturity, we receive principal and interest income on these agreements. Short-term investments are generally reported at fair value.

Alternative investments are limited partnership investments in private equity, private credit, and real estate strategies. These alternative investments are accounted for using the equity method, with income typically recognized on a one-quarter lag. Because these alternative investments are recorded under the equity method of accounting, with the underlying holdings carried at fair value, the valuation and income recognized on these investments may be impacted by volatility in the financial markets.

We categorize distributions from our equity method investments on our Consolidated Statement of Cash Flows using the cumulative earnings approach. Under this approach, distributions received are classified as cash flows from operating activities until such time that the cumulative distributions exceed cumulative earnings for the investment. When such an excess occurs, the excess portion of the current period distribution is considered a return of investment and is classified as a cash flow from investing activities.

We evaluate our alternative investments to determine whether those investments are variable interest entities ("VIEs") and if so, whether consolidation is required. A VIE is an entity that either has equity investors that lack certain essential characteristics of a controlling financial interest or lack sufficient funds to finance its own activities without financial support provided by other entities. We consider several significant factors in determining if our investments are VIEs and if we are the primary beneficiary, including whether we have (i) the power to direct activities of the VIE, (ii) the ability to remove the decision maker of the VIE, (iii) the ability to participate in making decisions that are significant to the VIE, and (iv) the obligation to absorb losses and the right to receive benefits that could potentially be significant to the VIE. We have reviewed our alternative investments and have concluded that they are VIEs, but that we are not the primary beneficiary and therefore, consolidation is not required.

Our other investment portfolio includes Federal Home Loan Bank stock (“FHLB Stock”) and tax credit investments. The FHLB Stock is reported at cost.

Accounting for our tax credit investments is dependent on the type of credit we have purchased, as follows:

•Federal low income housing tax credits are accounted for under the proportional amortization method; and

•All other tax credits in our investment portfolio are accounted for using the equity method.

For federal tax credits accounted for under the equity method, we use the deferral method for recognizing the benefit of the tax credit with the related deferred revenue being recognized in our Consolidated Income Statement as a component of "Federal income tax expense" proportionately over the life of the investment.

Presentation in the Consolidated Statement of Income

Net Investment Income Earned

Net investment income earned on our Consolidated Statement of Income includes the following:

•Interest income, as well as amortization and accretion, on fixed income securities;

•Interest income on CMLs;

•Dividend income on equity securities;

•Interest income on our short-term investments; and

•Income recognized on our alternative and other investments accounted for under the equity method of accounting, except for federal tax credits, as discussed below.

Income related to federal tax credits (either low income housing tax credits or other federal credits) is recorded in our Consolidated Statement of Income as a component of “Federal income tax expense” proportionately over the life of the investment.

Net Realized and Unrealized Investment Gains (Losses)

Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses) on our Consolidated Statement of Income include the following:

•Realized gains and losses on the disposal of holdings in our investment portfolio, which are determined on the basis of the cost of the specific investments sold;

•Changes in unrealized gains or losses on our equity securities;

•Losses on investments for which we have the intent to sell, which are discussed further below; and

•Net credit loss expense or benefit resulting from changes in the ACL related to our investment portfolio, which is also discussed further below.

Losses on Investments for which we have the Intent to Sell

For our AFS fixed income securities and short-term investments, we review our fixed income securities in an unrealized loss position to determine (i) if we have the intent to sell the security, or (ii) if it is more likely than not we will be required to sell the security before its anticipated recovery. If we determine that we have the intent or likely requirement to sell the security, we write down its amortized cost to its fair value. In writing down amortized cost, any amount previously recorded as an ACL is reversed and any incremental reduction in amortized cost is recorded directly to earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

For our alternative and other investments, if we determine that we intend to sell a holding and the expected proceeds are less than the recorded value of the investment, we will record a loss on those securities we intend to sell in earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

After reviewing our portfolio, if (i) we do not have the intent to sell, or (ii) it is more likely than not we will not be required to sell the security before its anticipated recovery, then our intent is to hold the investment securities to recovery, or maturity if necessary to recover the decline in valuation as prices accrete to par. However, our intent may change prior to maturity due to certain types of events, which include, but are not limited to, changes in the financial markets, our analysis of an issuer’s credit metrics and prospects, changes in tax laws or the regulatory environment, or as a result of significant unforeseen changes in liquidity needs. As such, we may, from time to time, sell invested assets subsequent to the balance sheet date that we did not intend to sell at the balance sheet date. Conversely, we may not sell invested assets that we asserted we intended to sell at the balance sheet date. Such changes in intent are due to unforeseen events occurring subsequent to the balance sheet date.

ACL on AFS Fixed Income Securities and Short-Term Investments

When fixed income securities are in an unrealized loss position and we do not record any losses on securities for which we intend to sell, we record an ACL for the portion of the unrealized loss due to an expected credit loss. We estimate expected

credit losses on fixed income securities with certain credit qualities by performing a discounted cash flow (“DCF”). The ACL is equal to the excess of amortized cost over the greater of: (i) our estimate of the present value of expected future cash flows, or (ii) fair value. The ACL is recorded as a contra-asset reflected in the carrying value of the investment on the Consolidated Balance Sheet. The initial ACL and any subsequent changes are recorded to earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income. Any remaining unrealized loss is the non-credit amount and is recorded in AOCI. The ACL cannot exceed the unrealized loss of an AFS security and therefore it may fluctuate with changes in the fair value of the security. The ACL is written off against the amortized cost basis in the period in which it is determined uncollectible.

Our DCF analyses calculate the present value of expected future cash flows using various models specific to the major security types in our portfolio. These models use security-specific information, as well as reasonable and forecasted macroeconomic data, to determine possible expected credit loss scenarios based on projected changes in the economy. The forecasted economic data incorporated into the models is based on the Federal Reserve Board’s annual supervisory stress test review on certain large banks and financial institutions. We also have the ability to incorporate internally-developed forecast information into the models as we deem appropriate.

The discount rate used in a DCF is one of the following:

•The current yield in effect at the reporting date to accrete the beneficial interest for RMBS, CMBS, CLO and other ABS that were not of high credit quality at acquisition;

•The effective interest rate in effect as of the reporting date for non-fixed rate securities; and

•The effective interest rate implicit in the security at the date of acquisition for all other securities.

DCFs may include, but are not necessarily limited to: (i) generating cash flows for each tranche considering tranche-specific data, market data, and other pertinent information, such as the historical performance of the underlying collateral, including net operating income generated by underlying properties, conditional default rate assumptions, loan loss severity assumptions, consensus projections, prepayment projections, and actual pool and collateral information; (ii) identifying applicable benchmark yields; and (iii) applying market-based tranche specific spreads to determine an appropriate yield by incorporating collateral performance, tranche-level attributes, trades, bids, and offers.

We do not record a valuation allowance on the accrued interest balance associated with our fixed income securities as we reverse delinquent amounts on a timely basis. We consider a fixed income security to be past due at the time any principal or interest payments become 90 days delinquent.

ACL on CMLs

We evaluate our CMLs on a quarterly basis for expected credit losses. If we hold a CML with a specific credit concern, we record an individual ACL on that loan. For all other CMLs, we record an ACL on the pool of loans based on lifetime expected credit losses. The ACL is recorded as a contra-asset reflected in the carrying value of our CMLs on the Consolidated Balance Sheet. Our initial ACL and any subsequent changes are recorded to earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

We utilize a forecasting model to estimate lifetime expected credit losses at a loan level under multiple economic scenarios. The scenarios apply reasonable and forecasted macroeconomic data such as unemployment, inflation, and rent assumptions to project property-specific operating income and capitalization rates that are used to estimate the value of the future operating income stream. This information, coupled with historical data about mortgage loan performance, is used to project the probability of default, the amount of loss given a default, and the resulting lifetime expected loss.

Credit Losses on Alternative Investments

We review our alternative investment portfolio for potential credit losses through quarterly fund reports and conversations with the general partners of the alternative investments concerning the following:

•The current investment strategy;

•Changes made or future changes to be made to the investment strategy;

•Emerging issues that may affect the success of the strategy; and

•The appropriateness of the valuation methodology used regarding the underlying investments.

Credit Losses on Other Investments

Our evaluation for potential credit loss on tax credits and FHLB Stock include a qualitative assessment of credit indicators, which include, but are not limited to, the following:

•An adverse development of the expected receipt of remaining tax credits and other tax benefits; and

•A significant deterioration in the financial condition or liquidity of the Federal Home Loan Bank of Indiana or New York.

If we do not intend to sell a security, and we expect a credit loss on a holding in our alternative or other investments portfolio, we record a charge to earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

Fair Value of Financial Instruments

Fair Values of Financial Instruments

Assets

The fair values of our investments are generated using various valuation techniques and are placed into the fair value hierarchy considering the following: (i) the highest priority is given to quoted prices in active markets for identical assets (Level 1); (ii) the next highest priority is given to quoted prices in markets that are not active or inputs that are observable either directly or indirectly, including quoted prices for similar assets in markets that are not active and other inputs that can be derived principally from, or corroborated by, observable market data for substantially the full term of the assets (Level 2); and (iii) the lowest priority is given to unobservable inputs supported by little or no market activity and that reflect our assumptions about the exit price, including assumptions that market participants would use in pricing the asset (Level 3). An asset’s classification within the fair value hierarchy is based on the lowest level of significant input to its valuation.

The techniques used to value our financial assets are as follows:

Level 1 Pricing


Security Type			Methodology
Equity Securities; U.S. Treasury Notes			Equity and U.S. Treasury Note prices are received from an independent pricing service that are based on observable market transactions. We validate these prices against a second external pricing service, and if established market value comparison thresholds are breached, further analysis is performed to determine the price to be used.
Short-Term Investments, excluding short-term fixed income securities			Short-term investments are recorded at fair value. Given the liquid nature of our short-term investments, we generally validate their fair value by way of active trades within approximately one week of the financial statement close.

Level 2 Pricing

We utilize a market approach for our Level 2 securities, using primarily matrix pricing models prepared by external pricing services. Matrix pricing models use mathematical techniques to value fixed income securities by relying on the securities' relationship to other benchmark quoted securities, and not relying exclusively on quoted prices for specific securities, as the specific securities are not always frequently traded. As a matter of policy, we consistently use one pricing service as our primary source and secondary pricing services if prices are not available from the primary pricing service. Fixed income security pricing is reviewed for reasonableness by (i) comparing our pricing to other third-party pricing services as well as benchmark indexed pricing, (ii) comparing fair value fluctuations between months for reasonableness, (iii) reviewing stale prices, and (iv) internally reviewing prices for reasonableness if a price from another third-party source is not available. If further analysis is needed, a challenge is sent to the pricing service for review and confirmation of the price.

Further information on our Level 2 asset pricing is included in the following table:



Security Type			Methodology
Corporate Securities, including preferred stocks classified as Fixed Income Securities, U.S. Government and Government Agencies and Short-term Corporate and U.S. Government Agency Bonds			Evaluations include obtaining relevant trade data, benchmark quotes and spreads, and incorporating this information into either spread-based or price-based evaluations as determined by the observed market data. Spread-based evaluations include: (i) creating a range of spreads for relevant maturities of each issuer based on the new issue market, secondary trading, and dealer quotes; and (ii) incorporating option-adjusted spreads for issues that have early redemption features. Based on the findings in (i) and (ii) above, final spreads are derived and added to benchmark curves. Price-based evaluations include matching each issue to its best-known market maker and contacting firms that transact in these securities.
Obligations of States and Political Subdivisions			Evaluations are based on yield curves that are developed based on factors such as: (i) benchmarks to issues with interest rates near prevailing market rates; (ii) established trading spreads over widely-accepted market benchmarks; (iii) yields on new issues; and (iv) market information from third-party sources such as reportable trades, broker-dealers, or issuers.
RMBS, CMBS, CLO and other ABS			Evaluations are based on a DCF, including: (i) generating cash flows for each tranche considering tranche-specific data, market data, and other pertinent information, such as historical performance of the underlying collateral, including net operating income generated by the underlying properties, conditional default rate assumptions, loan loss severity assumptions, consensus projections, prepayment projections, and actual pool and loan level collateral information; (ii) identifying applicable benchmark yields; and (iii) applying market-based tranche-specific spreads to determine an appropriate yield by incorporating collateral performance, tranche-level attributes, trades, bids, and offers.
Foreign Government			Evaluations are performed using a DCF model and by incorporating observed market yields of benchmarks as inputs, adjusting for varied maturities.

Level 3 Pricing


Security Type			Methodology
CMLs			Evaluations are performed by a third party and are based on matrix pricing. For fixed rate loans, the matrix process uses a yield build up approach to create a pricing yield, with components for base yield, credit quality spread, property type spread, and a weighted average life spread. Floating rate loans are priced with a target quality spread over the swap curve.

In addition to our CML portfolio, certain securities in our AFS fixed income securities portfolio are priced using (i) unobservable inputs, such as illiquidity spreads, (ii) broker quotes, or (iii) information received from other third-party sources, for which there is a lack of transparency as to the inputs used to generate the valuation. The quantitative detail of these unobservable inputs is neither provided to us, nor reasonably available to us.

Liabilities

The techniques used to value our notes payable are as follows:

Level 2 Pricing


Security Type			Methodology
7.25% Senior Notes; 6.70% Senior Notes; 5.375% Senior Notes			Based on matrix pricing models prepared by external pricing services.
Borrowings from Federal Home Loan Banks			Evaluations are performed using a DCF model based on current borrowing rates provided by the Federal Home Loan Banks that are consistent with the remaining term of the borrowing.

Allowance for Credit Losses on Premiums Receivable

We estimate an ACL on our outstanding premiums receivable balance at each reporting date. In determining this allowance, we use a method that considers the aging of the receivable, based on the effective year of the related policy, along with our historical receivable loss experience. We also contemplate expected macroeconomic conditions over the expected collection period, which are short-term in nature because the majority of the balances are collected within two years of policy issuance.

Changes in our ACL are charged to earnings as credit loss expense or benefit, which is a component of "Other insurance expenses" on our Consolidated Statements of Income, with an offsetting ACL recorded as a contra-asset reflected in the carrying value of the receivable. We charge write-offs against the allowance when we determine the account to be uncollectible after considering information obtained from our collection efforts.

Share-Based Compensation

Share-based compensation consists of all share-based payment transactions in which an entity acquires goods or services by issuing (or offering to issue) its shares, share units, share options, or other equity instruments. The cost resulting from these payment transactions is recognized in the Financial Statements based on the fair value of both equity and liability awards. For equity awards, fair value is measured at the grant date, while liability awards are remeasured at each reporting period. The fair value of both types of awards is expensed over the requisite service period. The requisite service period is typically the lesser of the vesting period or the time from the grant date to the recipient's retirement eligibility date. The expense recognized for share-based awards, which in some cases contain performance criteria, is based on the number of shares or units expected to be issued at the end of the performance period and the grant date fair value.

The grant date fair value of Restricted Stock Units ("RSUs") is based on the market price of our common stock on the grant date, adjusted for the present value of expected dividend payments.

The fair value of the Cash Incentive Units ("CIUs") liability is remeasured at each reporting period through the settlement date of the awards based on an amount expected to be paid. A Monte Carlo simulation is performed to approximate the projected fair value of the CIUs that is adjusted to reflect our performance on specified indicators compared to targeted peer companies.

The grant date fair value of option awards is estimated using the Black Scholes option valuation model ("Black Scholes"). The following are the significant assumptions used in applying Black Scholes: (i) the risk-free interest rate, which is the implied yield currently available on U.S. Treasury zero-coupon issues with an equal remaining term; (ii) the expected term, which is based on historical experience of similar awards; (iii) the dividend yield, which is determined by dividing the expected per share dividend during the coming year by the grant date stock price; and (iv) the expected volatility, which is based on the volatility of the Parent's stock price over a historical period comparable to the expected term.

We repurchase the Parent’s stock from our employees to meet tax withholding obligations, as permitted under our stock-based compensation plans. This activity is disclosed in our Consolidated Statement of Stockholders' Equity.

Reinsurance

The “Reinsurance recoverable” balance on our Consolidated Balance Sheet represents our estimate of amounts that will be recovered from reinsurers under our various treaties. Generally, amounts recoverable from reinsurers are recognized as assets at the same time and in a manner consistent with the paid and unpaid losses associated with the reinsured policies. We would consider a recoverable balance from a reinsurer to be past due if payment is not received by the first day following the invoice due date. We require collateral to secure reinsurance recoverable balances primarily from our reinsurance carriers that are not authorized, otherwise approved, or certified to do business in one or more of our ten insurance subsidiaries' domiciliary states. Our ten insurance subsidiaries are collectively referred to as the "Insurance Subsidiaries." The collateral received is typically in the form of a letter of credit, trust funds, or funds withheld against reinsurance recoverables.

Under our reinsurance arrangements, which are prospective in nature, reinsurance premiums ceded are recorded as prepaid reinsurance and amortized over the remaining contract period in proportion to the reinsurance protection provided, or recorded periodically, as per the terms of the contract, in a direct relationship to the gross premium recording. Reinsurance recoveries are recognized as gross losses are incurred.

We have a reinsurance agreement with a special purpose insurer ("SPI"). The reinsurance agreement meets the requirements to be accounted for as reinsurance in accordance with the guidance for reinsurance contracts. At the time of entering into the agreement, we evaluated the applicability of the VIE accounting guidance. A VIE is an entity that either has equity investors that lack certain essential characteristics of a controlling financial interest or lack sufficient funds to finance its own activities without financial support provided by other entities. We considered several significant factors in determining if the SPI is a VIE and if we are the primary beneficiary, including whether we have (i) the power to direct activities of the VIE, (ii) the ability to remove the decision maker of the VIE, (iii) the ability to participate in making decisions that are significant to the VIE, and (iv) the obligation to absorb losses and the right to receive benefits that could potentially be significant to the VIE. As a result of the evaluation of the reinsurance agreement with the SPI, we concluded that it was a VIE. However, we do not have a variable interest in the entity, as the variability in its results, caused by the reinsurance agreement, is expected to be absorbed entirely by the investors in the senior notes issued by the SPI, and residual amounts earned by it, if any, are expected to be absorbed by the equity investors. We have neither an equity nor a residual interest in the SPI.

Accordingly, we are not the primary beneficiary of the SPI and do not consolidate that entity in our Financial Statements. Additionally, because we have no intention to pursue any transaction that would result in it acquiring interest in and becoming

the primary beneficiary of the SPI, the consolidation of that entity in our Financial Statements in future periods is unlikely. Refer to Note 9. "Reinsurance" for more information on this transaction.

We estimate an ACL on our outstanding reinsurance recoverable balance at each reporting date. Credit risk is mitigated to the extent we have obtained collateral. As part of our estimation of the ACL, we reduce the recoverable balance by the amount of the collateral. We then pool the uncollateralized balances by similar risk characteristics, including the financial strength rating of the reinsurer, and use a probability-of-default methodology to calculate the allowance. Historical default rates are sourced from AM Best Company ("AM Best") and are coupled with severity assumptions in developing a baseline scenario. We then stress this scenario by incorporating forecasts of industry catastrophe losses and economic factors sourced through third-party data providers. In developing our best estimate of the ACL, we consider our outlook as to the probability of each of these scenarios occurring.

Changes in our ACL are charged to earnings as credit loss expense, which is a component of “Loss and loss expense incurred” on our Consolidated Statement of Income, with an offsetting ACL recorded as a contra-asset reflected in the carrying value of the recoverable balance. We charge write-offs against the ACL when we determine the recoverable balance to be uncollectible after considering information obtained from our efforts to collect amounts due or through a review of the financial condition of the reinsurer.

Property and Equipment

Property and equipment used in operations, including certain costs incurred to develop or obtain computer software for internal use, are capitalized and recorded at cost less accumulated depreciation. Depreciation is calculated using the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the assets. The following estimated useful lives can be considered as general guidelines:


Asset Category	Years
Computer hardware			3
Computer software	3	to	5
Software licenses	3	to	5
Internally developed software			5
Furniture and fixtures			10
Buildings and improvements	5	to	40

Deferred Policy Acquisition Costs

Deferred policy acquisition costs are limited to costs directly related to the successful acquisition of insurance contracts. Costs meeting this definition typically include, among other things, sales commissions paid to our distribution partners, premium taxes, and the portion of employee salaries and benefits directly related to time spent on acquired contracts. These costs are deferred and amortized over the life of the contracts.

Accounting guidance requires a premium deficiency analysis to be performed at the level an entity acquires, services, and measures the profitability of its insurance contracts. We currently perform three premium deficiency analyses for our insurance operations, consistent with our reportable segments of Standard Commercial Lines, Standard Personal Lines, and E&S Lines. A combined ratio of over 100% does not necessarily indicate a premium deficiency, as any year's combined ratio includes a portion of underwriting expenses that are expensed at policy inception and therefore are not covered by the remaining unearned premium. In addition, investment income is not contemplated in the combined ratio calculation.

There were no premium deficiencies for any of the reported years, as the sum of the anticipated loss and loss expense, unamortized acquisition costs, policyholder dividends, and other expenses for each segment did not exceed that segment’s related unearned premium and anticipated investment income. The investment yields assumed in the premium deficiency assessment for each reporting period, which were based on our actual average investment yield, before tax, as of the September 30 calculation date, were 4.8% for 2024, 4.8% for 2023, and 3.5% for 2022.

Goodwill

Goodwill results from business acquisitions where the cost of assets and liabilities acquired exceeds the fair value of those assets and liabilities. A quantitative goodwill impairment analysis is performed if our quarterly qualitative analysis indicates that it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. Goodwill is allocated to the reporting units for purposes of these analyses. Based on our analysis at December 31, 2024, goodwill was not impaired.

Reserve for Loss and Loss Expense

Reserve for loss and loss expense includes case reserves on reported claims and reserves for incurred but not reported ("IBNR") losses. Case reserves are estimated for each individual claim based on the facts and circumstances known at the time. Case reserves may be adjusted up or down as the claim's facts and circumstances change. IBNR reserves are established at more aggregated levels and include provisions for (i) claims not yet reported, (ii) future development on reported claims, (iii) previously closed claims that could reopen in the future, and (iv) anticipated salvage and subrogation recoveries.

We evaluate our reserves quarterly, through an in-depth reserve review process, and make adjustments to recorded reserves accordingly. The primary input we use to evaluate reserve levels is the quarterly reserve review prepared by our employee actuaries, which provides comprehensive loss and loss expense projections. We base our reviews primarily on our own loss experience, organized by line of business. Where sufficient statistical credibility exists, we may further segment the loss experience by coverage within a line, or geographic area. Generally accepted actuarial methodologies are applied to these reserve groups to produce ultimate loss and loss expense projections.

Typically, we organize our experience by accident year and age, allowing various loss development methods to be applied. These methods rely on historical claims reporting and payment patterns to project ultimate loss or expense for open accident years. We also consider the initial expectation of ultimate losses, particularly for longer-tailed lines of business and the current accident year. Our detailed actuarial planning process develops the expectation for the current accident year, which is adjusted over time as actual experience emerges.

These methods require judgment and numerous assumptions, like the selection of loss and loss expense development factors and the weight applied to each individual projection method. Consequently, no single method can be interpreted as definitive. Instead, ultimate loss and loss expenses are selected based on the various methods, considering the strengths and weaknesses of each applied to the specific line of business and accident year.

Certain liabilities do not lend themselves to the application of loss development methods, such as property catastrophes (low frequency/high severity, unique events), latent claims (where losses are incurred over an extended period), and unallocated loss expenses (those unattributable to a specific claim). We use alternate estimation techniques for these liabilities, some of which are primarily exposure-based methods. These methods include individual claims reviews, calendar year counts and averages, aggregate benchmark measures, such as paid and incurred "survival ratios," and others. These approaches often require additional assumptions and a greater degree of professional judgment.

The reserve review produces a set of ultimate loss and loss expense estimates by line of business, including current and prior accident years. The selected ultimate losses are separated into their components of claim frequency and severity, along with their associated trends, to provide additional insight. While these ultimate loss and loss expense estimates serve as the primary basis for determining the recorded IBNR reserves, other internal and external factors are considered in our overall reserve review. Internal factors include (i) changes to our underwriting and claims practices, (ii) supplemental data on claims reporting and settlement trends, (iii) exposure estimates for reported claims, (iv) potential large or complex claims, and (v) additional trends observed by claims personnel or defense counsel. External factors considered include (i) legislative and regulatory enactments, (ii) judicial trends and decisions, (iii) social trends, including the impacts of social inflation, and (iv) trends in general economic conditions, including the effects of inflation on medical costs, raw materials, and labor.

The combination of IBNR estimates and case reserve estimates on individual claims results in our total reserve for loss and loss expense. These reserves are expected to be sufficient for settling unpaid loss and loss expense obligations under our policies, including changes in the (i) volume of business written, (ii) claims frequency and severity, (iii) mix of business, (iv) claims processing, and (v) other items that management expects to affect our ultimate settlement of loss and loss expense. However, our loss and loss expense reserves are estimates of future events for which the outcomes are unknown. They carry inherent uncertainty, driven by internal factors, such as changes to our claims or underwriting operations, or external factors, like legislative, judicial, economic, or social trends. Inherent randomness, such as the actual number of accidents/incidents or the occurrence or non-occurrence of a single large event, can also impact actual outcomes. Because of these uncertainties, the reserves established may differ materially from actual outcomes. While this risk cannot be eliminated, we review our reserves quarterly based on available information, and make appropriate adjustments to our ultimate loss and loss expense estimates. These changes in our ultimate loss and loss expense estimates are reflected in the Consolidated Statements of Income for the period in which such estimates are changed. Liability estimate changes could be material to the results of operations in future periods.

Loss reserves are estimates, so we consider a range of possible loss and loss expense reserve estimates. This range is determined at the beginning of each year, using prior year-end data. We use a range because no single precise method for estimating the required reserves exists, as many factors may influence the amounts ultimately paid. We do not discount to

present value that portion of our loss and loss expense reserves expected to be paid in future periods. Our loss and loss expense reserves implicitly include anticipated salvage and subrogation recoveries.

Claims are counted by occurrence and by line of business and policy. For example, if a single occurrence (like an automobile accident) leads to a claim under an automobile and an associated umbrella policy, each claim is counted separately. Conversely, multiple claimants under the same occurrence/line/policy would constitute only one claim. Claim counts are on a reported basis and a claim is considered reported when a reserve is established or a loss payment is made. Claims closed without payment are included in the count if an associated case reserve was established at some point in the claim's life cycle.

Revenue Recognition

Premiums written are recognized as revenue over the period that coverage is provided using the semi-monthly pro-rata method. Unearned premiums and prepaid reinsurance premiums represent that portion of premiums written that are applicable to the unexpired terms of policies in force.

The Insurance Subsidiaries' net premiums written ("NPW") include direct insurance policy writings, plus reinsurance assumed, less reinsurance ceded. Insureds' records within our workers compensation and general liability lines of business are subject to periodic audit for purposes of verifying premium amounts. This premium is referred to as audit premium and is billed or returned on policies subsequent to expiration based on exposure levels (i.e. payroll or sales). We estimate this premium when it is reasonably possible to do so based on historical trends adjusted for the uncertainty of future economic conditions. If we determine it is not reasonably possible to estimate this premium, we do not do so.

Dividends to Policyholders

We establish reserves for dividends to policyholders on certain policies, most significantly workers compensation policies. These dividends are based on the policyholders' loss experience. Dividend reserves are established based on past experience, adjusted for the effects of current developments and anticipated trends. The expense for these dividends is recognized over a period that begins at policy inception and ends with the payment of the dividend. We report these dividends within "Other insurance expenses" on the Consolidated Statement of Income. We do not issue policies that entitle the policyholder to participate in the statutory earnings or surplus of our Insurance Subsidiaries.

Federal Income Tax

We use the asset and liability method of accounting for income taxes. Current federal income taxes are recognized for the estimated taxes payable or refundable on tax returns for the current year. Deferred federal income taxes arise from the recognition of temporary differences between financial statement carrying amounts and the tax basis of assets and liabilities. We consider all evidence, both positive and negative, with respect to our federal net operating and capital loss carryback availability, expected levels of pre-tax financial statement income, federal taxable income, liquidity, and prudent and reasonable tax planning strategies when evaluating whether the temporary differences will be realized. In projecting future taxable income, we begin with budgeted pre-tax income adjusted for estimated taxable and non-taxable items. The assumptions about future taxable income require significant judgment and are consistent with the plans and estimates we use to manage our businesses. A valuation allowance is established when it is more likely than not that some portion of the deferred tax asset will not be realized. The evaluation of a valuation allowance considers the character of the taxable income, ordinary income versus capital income. A liability for uncertain tax positions is recorded when it is more likely than not that a tax position will not be sustained upon examination by taxing authorities. The effect of a change in tax rates is recognized in the period of enactment. If we were to be levied interest and penalties by the Internal Revenue Service, these amounts would be recognized as a component of “Total federal income tax expense” on the Consolidated Statement of Income.

Leases

LeasesWe have various operating leases for office space, equipment, and fleet vehicles. In addition, we have various finance leases for computer hardware. We determine if an arrangement is a lease on the commencement date of the contract. Lease assets represent our right to use an underlying asset for the lease term, and lease liabilities represent our obligation to make lease payments arising from the lease. The lease asset and liability are measured by the present value of the future minimum lease payments over the lease term. Our fleet vehicle leases include a residual value guarantee; however, the residual value guarantee is not probable of being owed. Therefore, there is no impact to the lease liability or lease asset. To measure the present value, we use the discount rate in the contract. If the discount rate is not readily determinable, our incremental borrowing rate is used. The lease asset is then adjusted to exclude lease incentives. We recognize variable lease payments in the periods in which the obligations for those payments are incurred. In calculating a lease liability, we include options to extend or terminate the lease if it is reasonably certain that we will exercise such option. Lease expense is calculated using the straight-line method. In addition, we have adopted accounting policy elections to: (i) aggregate lease and non-lease components into a single lease component; and (ii) expense short-term leases on a straight-line basis over the lease term.

Pension

Our pension obligations and related costs are calculated using actuarial methods, within the framework of GAAP. Our pension benefit obligation is determined as the actuarial present value of the vested benefits to which employees are currently entitled, based on the average life expectancy of the employees. Our funding policy provides that payments to our pension trust shall be equal to the minimum funding requirements of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 ("ERISA"), plus additional amounts that may be approved from time to time.

Two key assumptions, the benefit obligation discount rate and the expected return on plan assets, are important elements of expense and/or liability measurement. We evaluate these key assumptions annually unless facts indicate that a more frequent review is required. The discount rate enables us to state expected future cash flows at their present value on the measurement date. The purpose of the discount rate is to determine the interest rates inherent in the price at which pension benefits could be effectively settled. Our discount rate selection is based on high-quality, long-term corporate bonds. To determine the expected long-term rate of return on the plan assets, we consider the current and expected asset allocation, as well as historical and expected returns on each plan asset class. Other assumptions involve demographic factors such as retirement age and mortality. A portion of our plan assets is allocated to a liability hedging strategy through which we have an expectation that our plan assets will move in tandem with a portion of the plan liabilities, helping to mitigate funding ratio volatility.

Adoption of Accounting Pronouncements

In June 2022, the Financial Accounting Standards Board ("FASB") issued Accounting Standards Update ("ASU") 2022-03, Fair Value Measurement of Equity Securities Subject to Contractual Sale Restrictions ("ASU 2022-03"). ASU 2022-03 clarifies that a contractual sales restriction on an equity security is not considered when determining the security's fair value. This ASU was issued to eliminate diversity in practice by clarifying that contractual arrangements restricting an entity's ability to sell the security for a certain period of time is a characteristic of the reporting entity and should not be contemplated when determining the security's fair value. ASU 2022-03 requires new disclosures that provide investors with information about the restriction, including the nature and remaining duration of the restriction. The ASU is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2023, including interim periods within those annual periods. We adopted this guidance on January 1, 2024 and it did not have a material impact to our financial condition or results of operations.

In March 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-02, Investments — Equity Method and Joint Ventures (Topic 323): Accounting for Investments in Tax Credit Structures Using the Proportional Amortization Method ("ASU 2023-02"). This ASU allows companies to elect to account for qualifying tax equity investments, regardless of the tax credit program from which the income tax credits are received, using the proportional amortization method if certain conditions are met. Companies were previously permitted to apply the proportional amortization method only to qualifying tax equity investments in low income housing tax credit structures. ASU 2023-02 extends the application of the proportional amortization method to qualifying tax equity investments that generate tax credits through other programs. It also requires new disclosures that provide a better understanding of the nature of the tax equity investments and the effect the tax equity investments and related income tax credits and other income tax benefits have on a company's financial position and results of operations. The ASU is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2023, including interim periods within those fiscal years. We adopted ASU 2023-02 on January 1, 2024 and it did not have a material impact to our financial condition or results of operations.

In November 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-07, Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures ("ASU 2023-07"). ASU 2023-07 amends disclosure requirements for segment reporting by modifying and adding disclosure requirements. The additional disclosure requirements include the following on both an interim and annual basis: (i) significant segment expenses that are regularly provided to the chief operating decision maker ("CODM"); (ii) amounts for "other segment items" by reportable segment and a description of its composition; and (iii) the title and position of the CODM and an explanation of how the CODM uses the reported measure(s) of segment profit or loss in assessing segment performance and deciding how to allocate resources. In addition, ASU 2023-07 requires all annual disclosures about a reportable segment’s profit or loss and assets currently required by Topic 280, Segment Reporting, to now be disclosed in interim periods. ASU 2023-07 is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2023, and interim periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024. We adopted ASU 2023-07 for the annual period ending December 31, 2024. As ASU 2023-07 only requires additional disclosure, it did not have a material impact on our financial condition or results of operations.

Pronouncements to be effective in the future

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures ("ASU 2023-09"). ASU 2023-09 amends disclosure requirements to provide greater transparency on income taxes. The following additional disclosures are required annually: (i) specific required categories in the rate reconciliation, (ii) additional information for reconciling items that meet a quantitative threshold, (iii) the amount of income taxes paid disaggregated by jurisdiction, and (iv) income tax expense (or benefit) from continuing operations disaggregated by federal, state, and foreign. ASU 2023-09 is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2024. Amendments can be applied on a prospective basis; however, retrospective

application is permitted. Early adoption is permitted. As ASU 2023-09 only requires additional disclosure, it will not have a material impact on our financial condition or results of operations.

In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU 2024-03, Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses ("ASU 2024-03"). ASU 2024-03 requires disaggregated disclosure of income statement expenses. This ASU does not change the expense captions currently presented on the income statement; rather it requires disaggregation of certain expense captions into specified categories in disclosures within the footnotes to the financial statements. ASU 2024-03 is effective for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2026, and interim reporting periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2027. This ASU can be applied on a prospective basis; however, retrospective application is permitted. Early adoption is permitted. As ASU 2024-03 only requires additional disclosure, it will not have a material impact on our financial condition and results of operations.