Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

Basis of Presentation

The accompanying consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States (“GAAP”) and include the accounts of White Mountains Insurance Group, Ltd. (the “Company” or the “Registrant”), its subsidiaries (collectively with the Company, “White Mountains”) and and other entities required to be consolidated under GAAP. The Company is an exempted Bermuda limited liability company whose principal businesses are conducted through its insurance subsidiaries and other affiliates. The Company’s headquarters is located at 26 Reid Street, Hamilton, Bermuda HM 11, its principal executive office is located at 80 South Main Street, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755-2053 and its registered office is located at Clarendon House, 2 Church Street, Hamilton, Bermuda HM 11. White Mountains’s reportable segments are OneBeacon, HG Global/BAM and Other Operations.

As discussed further in the Company’s consolidated financial statements in Note 2 — “Significant Transactions”, on April 18, 2016, White Mountains completed its sale of Sirius International Insurance Group, Ltd., and its subsidiaries (collectively, “Sirius Group”) to CM International Holding PTE Ltd. (“CMI”), the Singapore-based investment arm of China Minsheng Investment Corp., Ltd. Also, on July 21, 2016, White Mountains completed its sale of Tranzact Holdings, LLC (“Tranzact”) to an affiliate of Clayton, Dubilier & Rice, LLC. For the year ended December 31, 2016, Sirius Group and Tranzact have been presented as discontinued operations in the statement of operations and comprehensive income. Prior year amounts have been reclassified to conform to the current period’s presentation. The assets and liabilities of Sirius Group and Tranzact are classified as held for sale in the balance sheet as of December 31, 2015. See Note 22 — “Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations”.

The OneBeacon segment consists of OneBeacon Insurance Group, Ltd. (“OneBeacon Ltd.”), an exempted Bermuda limited liability company that owns a family of property and casualty insurance companies and Split Rock Insurance, Ltd. (“Split Rock”), a Bermuda based reinsurance company (collectively “OneBeacon”). OneBeacon is a specialty property and casualty insurance writer that offers a wide range of insurance products in the United States primarily through independent agencies, regional and national brokers, wholesalers and managing general agencies. As of December 31, 2016 and 2015, White Mountains owned 76.1% and 75.5% of OneBeacon Ltd.’s outstanding common shares. As discussed further in Note 2 — “Significant Transactions”, in December 2014, OneBeacon completed the sale of its of runoff business consisting of assets, liabilities and capital related principally to OneBeacon’s non-specialty business, including the vast majority of its asbestos and environmental reserves (“Runoff Business”) to an affiliate of Armour Group Holdings Limited (the “Runoff Transaction”). Accordingly, OneBeacon’s runoff business is presented as discontinued operations in the statement of operations and comprehensive income. In the second quarter of 2015, OneBeacon completed the sale of its building in Canton, MA for $58.0 million.

The HG Global/BAM segment consists of White Mountains’s investment in HG Global Ltd. (“HG Global”) and the consolidated results of Build America Mutual Assurance Company (“BAM”). BAM is the first and only mutual bond insurance company in the United States. By insuring the timely payment of principal and interest, BAM provides market access to, and lowers interest expense for, issuers of municipal bonds used to finance essential public purposes such as schools, utilities, and transportation facilities. BAM is owned by and operated for the benefit of its members, the municipalities that purchase BAM’s insurance for their debt issuances. HG Global was established to fund the startup of BAM and, through its wholly-owned subsidiary, HG Re Ltd. (“HG Re”), to provide 15%-of-par, first loss reinsurance protection for policies underwritten by BAM. HG Global, together with its subsidiaries, provided the initial capitalization of BAM through the purchase of $503.0 million of surplus notes issued by BAM (the “BAM Surplus Notes”). As of December 31, 2016 and 2015, White Mountains owned 96.9% of HG Global's preferred equity and 88.4% of its common equity. White Mountains does not have an ownership interest in BAM. However, GAAP requires White Mountains to consolidate BAM’s results in its financial statements. BAM’s results are attributed to non-controlling interests.

White Mountains’s Other Operations segment consists of the Company and its intermediate holding companies, its wholly-owned investment management subsidiary, White Mountains Advisors LLC (“WM Advisors”) and certain consolidated and unconsolidated private capital investments. The consolidated private capital investments consist of QL Holdings LLC (“MediaAlpha”), Wobi Insurance Agency Ltd. (“Wobi”), Star & Shield Services LLC, Star & Shield Risk Management LLC, and Star & Shield Claims Services LLC (collectively “Star & Shield”) and Removal Stars Ltd. (“Buzzmove”). Star & Shield provides management services for a fee to Star & Shield Insurance Exchange (“SSIE”), a reciprocal that is owned by its members, who are policyholders. SSRM’s role as the attorney-in-fact to SSIE gives it the power to direct the significant economic activities of SSIE. As a result, White Mountains is required to consolidate SSIE in its GAAP financial statements. SSIE’s results do not affect White Mountains’s common shareholders’ equity as they are attributable to non-controlling interests. On January 13, 2017, White Mountains reached an agreement to sell Star & Shield and the SSIE Surplus Notes to K2 Insurance Services LLC. As a result, White Mountains has presented Star & Shield’s and SSIE’s assets and liabilities as held for sale as of December 31, 2016 and 2015. White Mountains’s Other Operations segment also includes its variable annuity reinsurance business, White Mountains Life Reinsurance (Bermuda) Ltd. (“Life Re Bermuda”), which completed its runoff with all of its contracts maturing by June 30, 2016, and its U.S.-based service provider, White Mountains Financial Services LLC (collectively, “WM Life Re”).

All significant intercompany transactions have been eliminated in consolidation. Certain amounts in the prior period financial statements have been reclassified to conform to the current presentation. The preparation of financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities as of the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

Significant Accounting Policies

Investment Securities

As of December 31, 2016, White Mountains’s invested assets consisted of securities and other investments held for general investment purposes. White Mountains’s portfolio of fixed maturity investments, common equity securities and other long-term investments held for general investment purposes are classified as trading securities and are reported at fair value as of the balance sheet date. Changes in net unrealized investment gains (losses) are reported pre-tax in revenues. Realized investment gains (losses) are accounted for using the specific identification method and are reported pre-tax in revenues. Premiums and discounts on all fixed maturity investments are amortized and accreted to income over the anticipated life of the investment.

White Mountains’s invested assets that are measured at fair value include fixed maturity investments, common equity securities and other long-term investments, such as interests in hedge funds, private equity funds, various non-controlling interests in private capital investments and the OneBeacon Surplus Notes issued in connection with the Runoff Transaction. In determining its estimates of fair value, White Mountains uses a variety of valuation approaches and inputs. Whenever possible, White Mountains estimates fair value using valuation methods that maximize the use of quoted prices and other observable inputs.

As of December 31, 2016 and 2015, approximately 94% and 91% of the investment portfolio recorded at fair value was priced based upon quoted market prices or other observable inputs. Investments valued using Level 1 inputs include fixed maturity investments, primarily investments in U.S. Treasuries, short-term investments, which include U.S. Treasury Bills and common equity securities. Investments valued using Level 2 inputs are comprised of fixed maturity investments including debt securities issued by corporations, municipal obligations, mortgage and asset-backed securities, foreign government, agency and provincial obligations and preferred stocks. Fair value estimates for investments that trade infrequently and have few or no observable market prices are classified as Level 3 measurements. Level 3 fair value estimates based upon unobservable inputs include certain debt securities, including asset-backed securities, where quoted market prices are unavailable. White Mountains determines when transfers between levels have occurred as of the beginning of the period. White Mountains uses brokers and outside pricing services to assist in determining fair values. For investments in active markets, White Mountains uses the quoted market prices provided by outside pricing services to determine fair value. The outside pricing services used by White Mountains have indicated that if no observable inputs are available for a security, they will not provide a price. In those circumstances, White Mountains estimates the fair value using industry standard pricing methodologies and observable inputs such as benchmark interest rates, market comparables, broker quotes, issuer spreads, bids, offers, credit rating prepayment speeds and other relevant inputs.

White Mountains performs procedures to validate the market prices obtained from the outside pricing sources. Such procedures, which cover substantially all of its fixed maturity investments include, but are not limited to, the evaluation of pricing methodologies and a review of the pricing services’ quality control processes and procedures on at least an annual basis, comparison of our invested asset market prices to prices obtained from different independent pricing vendors on at least a semi-annual basis, monthly analytical reviews of certain prices, and review of the underlying assumptions utilized by the pricing service for selected measurements on an ad hoc basis throughout the year. White Mountains also performs back-testing of selected sales activity to determine whether there are any significant differences between the market price used to value the security prior to sale and the actual sale price on an ad-hoc basis throughout the year. Prices provided by the pricing services that vary by more than 5% and $1.0 million from the expected price based on these procedures are considered outliers. Prices that have not changed from period to period and prices that have trended unusually compared to market conditions are also considered outliers.

In circumstances where the results of White Mountains’s review process do not appear to support the market price provided by the pricing services, White Mountains challenges the price. During the past year, nine securities fell outside White Mountains’s expected results, thereby triggering the challenge with the pricing service. If White Mountains cannot gain satisfactory evidence to support the challenged price, it relies upon its own pricing methodologies to estimate the fair value of the security in question. The fair values of such securities are considered to be Level 3 measurements.

White Mountains’s investments in debt securities, including mortgage and asset-backed securities, are generally valued using pricing evaluation techniques that considers relevant market information, relevant credit information, perceived market movements and sector news. Key inputs include benchmark yields, benchmark securities, reported trades, issuer spreads, bids, offers, credit ratings and prepayment speeds. Income on mortgage and asset-backed securities is recognized using an effective yield based on anticipated prepayments and the estimated economic life of the securities. When actual prepayments differ significantly from anticipated prepayments, the estimated economic life is recalculated and the remaining unamortized premium or discount is amortized prospectively over the remaining economic life.

Short-term investments consist of interest bearing money market funds, certificates of deposit, time deposits and other securities which, at the time of purchase, mature or become available for use within one year. Short-term investments are carried at amortized cost, which approximated fair value as of December 31, 2016 and 2015.

Other Long-term Investments

Other long-term investments consist primarily of hedge funds, private equity funds, various non-controlling interests in private capital investments and the OneBeacon Surplus Notes. See Note 5 — “Investment Securities”. White Mountains has taken the fair value option for most of its investments in hedge funds, private equity funds, various non-controlling interests in private capital investments and the OneBeacon Surplus Notes. For the investments for which White Mountains has taken the fair value option, changes in fair value are reported in revenues on a pre-tax basis. For those long-term investments for which White Mountains has not made the fair value election, White Mountains accounts for its interests under the equity method.

Derivative Financial Instruments

White Mountains occasionally holds a variety of derivative financial instruments for risk management purposes. White Mountains recognizes all derivatives as either assets or liabilities, measured at fair value, in the consolidated balance sheets. Changes in the fair value of derivative instruments are recognized in current period pre-tax income.

Warrants

From time to time, White Mountains holds warrants that it has received in the restructuring (e.g., securities received from bankruptcy proceedings) of certain of its common equity securities and fixed maturity investments. White Mountains accounts for its investments in warrants as derivatives.

Derivatives—Variable Annuity Reinsurance

White Mountains has entered into agreements to reinsure death and living benefit guarantees associated with certain variable annuities in Japan through its wholly owned subsidiary, WM Life Re. The accounting for benefit guarantees differs depending on whether or not the guarantee is classified as a derivative or an insurance liability.

Guaranteed minimum accumulation benefits (“GMABs”) are paid to an annuitant for any shortfall between accumulated account value at the end of the accumulation period and the annuitant’s total deposit, less any withdrawal payments made to the annuitant during the accumulation period. GMABs meet the definition of a derivative for accounting purposes. Therefore, GMABs are carried at fair value, with changes thereon recognized in income in the period of the change. The liability for the reinsured GMAB contracts has been determined using internal valuation methodologies that use assumptions for interest rates, equity markets, foreign exchange rates and market volatilities at the valuation date, as well as annuitant-related actuarial assumptions, including surrender and mortality rates.

If an annuitant dies during the accumulation period of an annuity contract, guaranteed minimum death benefits (“GMDBs”) are paid to the annuitant’s beneficiary for shortfalls between accumulated account value at the time of an annuitant’s death and the annuitant’s total deposit, less any living benefit payments or withdrawal payments previously made to the annuitant. White Mountains elected to measure its GMDB liabilities at fair value.

The valuation of these liabilities involves significant judgment and is subject to change based upon changes in capital market assumptions and emerging surrender and mortality experience of the underlying contracts in force.

WM Life Re has completed its run-off as all of its contracts matured as of June 30, 2016. WM Life Re entered into derivative contracts that were designed to economically hedge against changes in the fair value of living and death benefit liabilities associated with its variable annuity reinsurance arrangements. The derivatives included futures and over-the-counter option contracts on interest rates, major bond and equity indices, and foreign currencies. All WM Life Re’s derivative instruments were recorded as assets or liabilities at fair value on the balance sheet within other assets. These derivative financial instruments did not meet the criteria for hedge accounting treatment, and accordingly, changes in fair value were recognized in the appropriate period as gains or losses in the income statement within other revenues.

WM Life Re included the effect of counterparty credit risk when determining the fair value of its derivative contracts and its GMAB and GMDB liabilities.

Cash

Cash includes amounts on hand and demand deposits with banks and other financial institutions. Amounts presented in the statement of cash flows are shown net of balances acquired and sold in the purchase or sale of the Company’s consolidated subsidiaries and exclude changes in amounts of restricted cash. See Note 9 — “Derivatives”.

Insurance and Reinsurance Operations

White Mountains accounts for insurance and reinsurance policies that it writes in accordance with ASC 944. Premiums written are recognized as revenues and are earned ratably over the term of the related policy or reinsurance treaty. Unearned premiums represent the portion of premiums written that are applicable to future insurance and reinsurance coverage provided by policies or treaties in force. White Mountains charges fees on certain of its insurance policies. Refundable fees are classified with premiums and recognized in earnings over the policy term. Fees that represent a reimbursement of expenses, such as installment fees, are recorded as a reduction of underwriting expenses.

Deferred acquisition costs represent commissions, premium taxes, brokerage expenses and other costs which are directly attributable to and vary with the production of business. These costs are deferred and amortized to the extent they relate to successful contract acquisitions over the applicable premium recognition period as insurance and reinsurance acquisition expenses. Amortization of deferred acquisition costs are presented within insurance and reinsurance acquisition expenses. Deferred acquisition costs are limited to the amount expected to be recovered from future earned premiums and anticipated investment income. This limitation is referred to as a premium deficiency. A premium deficiency is recognized if the sum of expected loss and loss adjustment expenses (“LAE”), expected dividends to policyholders, unamortized acquisition costs, and maintenance costs exceeds related unearned premiums and anticipated investment income. A premium deficiency is recognized by charging any unamortized acquisition costs to expense to the extent required in order to eliminate the deficiency. If the premium deficiency exceeds unamortized acquisition costs then a liability is accrued for the excess deficiency.

Losses and LAE are charged against income as incurred. Unpaid insurance losses and LAE are based on estimates (generally determined by claims adjusters, legal counsel and actuarial staff) of the ultimate costs of settling claims, including the effects of inflation and other societal and economic factors. Unpaid reinsurance losses and LAE are based primarily on reports received from ceding companies and actuarial projections. Unpaid loss and LAE reserves represent management’s best estimate of ultimate losses and LAE, net of estimated salvage and subrogation recoveries, if applicable. Such estimates are regularly reviewed and updated and any resulting adjustments are reflected in current operations. The process of estimating loss and LAE involves a considerable degree of judgment by management and the ultimate amount of expense to be incurred could be considerably greater than or less than the amounts currently reflected in the financial statements.

White Mountains’s insurance and reinsurance subsidiaries enter into ceded reinsurance contracts from time to time to protect their businesses from losses due to concentration of risk, to manage their operating leverage ratios and to limit losses arising from catastrophic events. Such reinsurance contracts are executed through excess of loss treaties and catastrophe contracts under which the reinsurer indemnifies White Mountains for a specified part or all of certain types of losses over stipulated amounts arising from any one occurrence or event. White Mountains has also entered into quota share treaties with reinsurers under which all risks meeting prescribed criteria are covered on a pro-rata basis. The amount of each risk ceded by White Mountains is subject to maximum limits which vary by line of business and type of coverage.

Amounts recoverable from reinsurers are estimated in a manner consistent with the claim liability associated with the reinsured policies. The collectability of reinsurance recoverables is also subject to the solvency of the reinsurers. White Mountains is selective in regard to its reinsurers, principally placing reinsurance with those reinsurers with a strong financial condition, industry ratings and underwriting ability. Management monitors the financial condition and ratings of its reinsurers on an ongoing basis.

Reinsurance premiums, commissions, expense reimbursements and reserves related to reinsured business are accounted for on a basis consistent with those used in accounting for the original policies issued and the terms of the reinsurance contracts. Premiums ceded to other companies are reported as a reduction of premiums written. Expense allowances received in connection with reinsurance ceded have been accounted for as a reduction of the related policy acquisition costs and are deferred and amortized accordingly. Funds held by ceding companies represent amounts due to White Mountains in connection with certain assumed reinsurance agreements in which the ceding company retains a portion of the premium to provide security against future loss payments. The funds held by ceding companies are generally invested by the ceding company and a contractually agreed interest amount is credited to the Company and recognized as investment income. Funds held under insurance and reinsurance contracts represent contractual payments due to White Mountains that have been retained to secure such obligations. Such amounts are recorded as liabilities in the consolidated financial statements.

Accruals for contingent commission liabilities are established for reinsurance contracts that provide for the stated commission percentage to increase or decrease based on the loss experience of the contract. Changes in the estimated liability for such arrangements are recorded as contingent commissions. Accruals for contingent commission liabilities are determined through the review of the contracts that have these adjustable features and are estimated based on expected loss and LAE.

Municipal Bond Insurance

All of the contracts issued by BAM are accounted for as insurance contracts under ASC 944-605, Financial Guarantee Insurance Contracts. Premiums are generally received upfront and an unearned premium revenue liability, equal to the amount of the premium received, is established at contract inception. Premium revenues are recognized in revenue over the period of the contracts in proportion to the amount of insurance protection provided using a constant rate. The constant rate is calculated based on the relationship between the par outstanding in a given reporting period compared with the sum of each of the par amounts outstanding for all periods.

Deferred acquisition costs represent commissions, premium taxes, excise taxes and other costs which are directly attributable to and vary with the production of business. These costs are deferred and amortized to the extent they relate to successful contract acquisitions over the applicable premium recognition period as acquisition expenses. Deferred acquisition costs are limited to the amount expected to be recovered from future earned premiums and anticipated investment income.

Funds Held

Funds held under reinsurance contracts primarily represent amounts due to White Mountains in connection with the Standard Reinsurance Agreement (“SRA”) with the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (“FCIC”), which is managed by an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The SRA governs the relationship, including the exchange of funds, between private insurance companies, including White Mountains, and the FCIC relating to our MPCI crop insurance business. Funds held under insurance contracts represents unrestricted collateral held by White Mountains primarily relating to the surety business.

Mandatory Shared Market Mechanisms

As a condition to its licenses to do business in certain states, White Mountains’s insurance operations must participate in various mandatory shared market mechanisms commonly referred to as “residual” or “involuntary” markets. These markets generally consist of risks considered to be undesirable from a standard or routine underwriting perspective. Each state dictates the levels of insurance coverage that are mandatorily assigned to participating insurers within these markets. The total amount of such business an insurer must accept in a particular state is generally based on that insurer’s market share of voluntary business written within that state. In certain cases, White Mountains is obligated to write business from shared market mechanisms at a future date based on its historical market share of all voluntary policies written within that state. Involuntary business generated from mandatory shared market mechanisms is accounted for as direct insurance business or as assumed reinsurance depending upon the structure of the mechanism.

OneBeacon’s market assignments are typically required to be written in the current period, however, in certain cases OneBeacon is required to accept policy assignments at a future date. Anticipated losses associated with future market assignments are recognized when the amount of such anticipated losses is determined to be probable and can be reasonably estimated.

Insurance-related Assessments

Under existing guaranty fund laws in all states, insurers licensed to do business in those states can be assessed for certain obligations of insolvent insurance companies to policyholders and claimants. White Mountains records guaranty fund assessments when it is probable that an assessment will be made and the amount can be reasonably estimated.

Deferred Software Costs

White Mountains capitalizes costs related to computer software developed for internal use during the application development stage of software development projects. These costs generally consist of certain external, payroll and payroll-related costs. White Mountains begins amortization of these costs once the project is completed and ready for its intended use. Amortization is on a straight-line basis and over a useful life of eighteen months to five years.

Costs related to software developed for sale to third parties are expensed until technological feasibility has been established. Once technological feasibility has been established, software development costs are capitalized and reported at their net realizable value. Upon product release, the amortization of software development costs is determined annually as the greater of the amount calculated using the ratio of current gross revenues to the total of current and expected gross revenues for the product or the straight-line method over the estimated economic life, which is generally between 18 to 36 months.

As of December 31, 2016 and 2015, White Mountains had unamortized deferred software costs of $16.4 million and $15.8 million. Amortization expense of software development costs of $6.3 million, $4.4 million and $2.9 million were recognized for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014, respectively.

Commission and Other Revenue Recognition

White Mountains recognizes agent commissions and other revenues when it has fulfilled all of its obligations necessary to earn the revenue and when it can reliably estimate both the amount of revenue, net of any amounts expected to be uncollectible, and any amounts associated with expected cancellations.

Federal and Foreign Income Taxes

A significant portion of White Mountains’s subsidiaries file consolidated tax returns in the United States. Income earned or losses generated by companies outside the United States are generally subject to an overall effective tax rate lower than that imposed by the United States.

Deferred tax assets and liabilities are recorded when a difference between the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities for financial reporting purposes and the amounts for tax purposes exists, and for other temporary differences. The deferred tax asset or liability is recorded based on tax rates expected to be in effect when the difference reverses. The deferred tax asset is recognized when it is more likely than not that it will be realized.

Foreign Currency Exchange

The U.S. dollar is the functional currency for all of White Mountains’s businesses except for Sirius International and certain other smaller international activities. White Mountains also invests in securities denominated in foreign currencies. Assets and liabilities recorded in these foreign currencies are translated into U.S. dollars at exchange rates in effect at the balance sheet date, and revenues and expenses are converted using the weighted average exchange rates for the period. Net foreign exchange gains and losses arising from the translation of functional currencies are generally reported in shareholders’ equity, in accumulated other comprehensive income or loss.

Assets and liabilities relating to foreign operations are translated into the functional currency using current exchange rates; revenues and expenses are translated into the functional currency using the weighted average exchange rate for the period. The resulting exchange gains and losses are reported as a component of net income in the period in which they arise. As of December 31, 2016 and 2015, White Mountains had unrealized foreign currency translation losses of $1.4 million and $145.6 million recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income on its consolidated balance sheet.

The following rates of exchange for the U.S. dollar have been used for the most significant operations:



Currency	Opening Rate 2016	Closing Rate 2016	Opening Rate 2015	Closing Rate 2015
Israeli Shekels	3.9051	3.8476	3.8865	3.9051
British Pound Sterling	0.6757	0.8074	0.6426	0.6757
Euro	0.9189	0.9479	0.8245	0.9189
Swedish Kronor ⁽¹⁾	8.4247	N/A	7.7737	8.4247

⁽¹⁾On April 18, 2016 White Mountains completed its sale of Sirius Group.

Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets

Goodwill represents the excess of the amount paid to acquire subsidiaries over the fair value of identifiable net assets at the date of acquisition. Other intangible assets consist primarily of trademarks, URL and online names, customer relationships, information technology and insurance licenses.

Goodwill is not amortized, but rather is evaluated for impairment on an annual basis, or whenever indications of potential impairment exist. In the absence of any indications of potential impairment, the evaluation of goodwill is performed during the fourth quarter of each year. White Mountains initially evaluates goodwill using a qualitative approach (“step zero”) to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of goodwill is greater than its carrying value. If the results of the qualitative evaluation indicate that it is more likely than not that the carrying value of goodwill exceeds its fair value, White Mountains, performs the two-step quantitative test for impairment.

Other intangible assets with finite lives are measured at their acquisition date fair values, are amortized over their economic lives and presented net of accumulated amortization on the balance sheet. Other intangible assets with finite lives are evaluated for impairment at least annually and when events or changes in circumstances indicate that it is more likely than not that the asset is impaired.

White Mountains evaluated the recoverability of goodwill and other intangible assets and did not recognize any impairment losses for any of the years ended December 31, 2016, 2015 and 2014. See Note 6 — “Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets”.

Non-controlling Interest

Non-controlling interests consist of the ownership interests of non-controlling shareholders in consolidated subsidiaries, and are presented separately on the balance sheet. The portion of comprehensive income attributable to non-controlling interests is presented net of related income taxes in the statement of operations and comprehensive income. See Note 14 — “Common Shareholders’ Equity and Non-controlling Interests”.

Variable Interest Entities

White Mountains consolidates a variable interest entity (“VIE”) when it has both the power to direct the activities of the VIE that most significantly impact its economic performance and either the obligation to absorb losses or the right to receive returns from the VIE that could potentially be significant to the VIE. See Note 18 — “Variable Interest Entities”.

Recently Adopted Changes in Accounting Principles

Short-Duration Contracts

Effective December 31, 2016, White Mountains adopted ASU 2015-09, Disclosures about Short Duration Contracts (ASC 944), which requires expanded footnote disclosures about loss and loss adjustment expense (“LAE”) reserves. Upon adoption, White Mountains modified its footnote disclosures to include loss development tables on a disaggregated basis by accident year and a reconciliation of loss development data to the loss and LAE reserves reflected on the balance sheet. The footnote disclosures have also been expanded to include information about claim frequency data, including a description of how the claims frequency data is measured. Prior year disclosures have been modified to conform to the new disclosures. See Note 3 — “Reserves for Unpaid Losses and Loss Adjustment Expenses”.

Business Combinations - Measurement Period Adjustments

Effective January 1, 2016, White Mountains adopted ASU 2015-16, Simplifying the Accounting for Measurement-Period Adjustments (ASC 805), which requires adjustments to provisional amounts recorded in connection with a business combination that are identified during the measurement period to be recorded in the reporting period in which the adjustment amounts are determined, rather than as retroactive adjustments to prior periods. White Mountains has not recognized any adjustments to estimated purchase accounting amounts for the year to date period ended December 31, 2016 and accordingly, there was no effect to White Mountains’s financial statements upon adoption.

Fair Value Measurements

On January 1, 2016, White Mountains adopted ASU 2015-07, Fair Value Measurement - Disclosures for Investments in Certain Entities that Calculate Net Asset Value per Share (or Its Equivalent) (ASC 820), which eliminates the requirement to disclose the fair value hierarchy level for investments for which fair value is measured at net asset value (“NAV”) using the practical expedient in ASC 820. White Mountains measures the fair value of its investments in hedge funds and private equity funds using this practical expedient. Upon adoption, these fair value measurements are no longer classified within the fair value hierarchy. Prior year amounts have been modified to conform to the current year’s disclosures.

Amendments to Consolidation Analysis

On January 1, 2016, White Mountains adopted ASU 2015-02, Amendments to the Consolidation Analysis (ASC 810) which amends the guidance for determining whether an entity is a VIE. ASU 2015-02 eliminates the separate consolidation guidance for limited partnerships and, with it, the presumption that a general partner should consolidate a limited partnership. In addition, ASU 2015-02 changes the guidance for determining if fee arrangements qualify as variable interests and the effect fee arrangements have on the determination of the primary beneficiary. Adoption of ASU 2015-02 did not affect the consolidation analysis for any of White Mountains’s investments.

Share-Based Compensation Awards

On January 1, 2016, White Mountains adopted ASU 2014-12, Share-Based Payments When the Terms of an Award Provide That a Performance Target Could Be Achieved after the Requisite Service Period (ASC 718). The new guidance requires that a performance target that affects vesting and that can be achieved after the requisite service period be treated as a performance condition. Compensation cost is to be recognized in the period when it becomes probable the performance target will be achieved in an amount equal to the compensation cost attributable to the periods for which service has been rendered. Adoption did not have a significant effect on White Mountains’s financial position, results of operations, cash flows, presentation or disclosures.

Debt Issuance Costs

On January 1, 2016, White Mountains adopted ASU 2015-03, Imputation of Interest (ASC 835), which requires debt issuance costs to be presented as a deduction from the carrying amount of the related debt, consistent with the treatment required for debt discounts. The new guidance requires amortization of debt issuance costs to be classified within interest expense and also requires disclosure to the debt’s effective interest rate. White Mountains has applied the guidance retrospectively and as a result has reclassified $1.9 million of unamortized debt issuance costs from other assets to debt as of December 31, 2015, reflecting these amounts as a reduction from the related debt, and has modified its disclosures to include the required effective interest rate on its debt. As of December 31, 2016, the unamortized debt issuance costs included in debt is $1.6 million.

Reporting Discontinued Operations and Disclosures of Disposals of Components of an Entity

Effective January 1, 2015, White Mountains adopted ASU 2014-08, Reporting Discontinued Operations and Disclosures of Disposals of Components of an Entity (ASC 205 and ASC 360), which limits discontinued operations treatment to disposals that have a major effect on a reporting entity’s operations and financial results to be reported as discontinued operations. ASU 2014-08 also requires expanded disclosure in the financial statements for discontinued operations as well as for disposals of significant components of an entity that do not qualify for discontinued operations presentation. As discussed further in Note 2, White Mountains completed its sale of Sirius Group on April 18, 2016. Sirius Group has been presented as discontinued operations for all periods presented.

Qualified Affordable Housing Projects

Effective January 1, 2015, White Mountains adopted ASU 2014-01, Accounting for Investments in Qualified Affordable Housing Projects (“QAHP”) (ASC 323). ASU 2014-01 allows investors in QAHP to make a policy election to use the proportional amortization method. Under the proportional amortization method, the investor amortizes the initial cost of the investment in proportion to the tax credits and other tax benefits received and recognizes the investment results, net of the related tax benefits, as a component of income tax expense. Prior to adoption, White Mountains accounted for its QAHP investment under the equity method and recognized its share of its QAHP investment's losses in investment income. White Mountains made the policy election to account for its investment in its QAHP investment using the proportional amortization method, applied retrospectively. Under the proportional amortization method, the cumulative loss recognized through December 31, 2014 and December 31, 2013 was $0.9 million and $0.4 million. The retrospective adoption resulted in an increase of $1.7 million and $1.9 million to net investment income and a net increase of $2.3 million and $2.2 million to income tax expense for the years ended December 31, 2014 and 2013. Footnote disclosures for prior year amounts have been amended to be consistent with the restated amounts described above.

Pushdown Accounting

ASU 2014-17, Pushdown Accounting, a consensus of the FASB Emerging Issues Task Force (ASC 805) became effective upon its issuance on November 18, 2014. The new guidance, which is applicable prospectively, gives an acquired non-public company the option to apply pushdown accounting in its separate company financial statements in the period in which it is acquired in a change of control transaction. Once pushdown accounting has been applied, the election is irreversible. Acquired entities that chose not to apply pushdown accounting at the time of acquisition may apply pushdown accounting in a subsequent period as a change in accounting principle under ASC 250, Accounting Changes and Error Corrections. White Mountains has not had any acquisitions for which it has elected to apply pushdown accounting since ASU 2014-17 became effective.

Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements

Cash Flow Statement

In August 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-15, Statement of Cash Flows: Classification of Certain Cash Receipts and Cash Payments (ASC 230), which addresses the classification and presentation of certain items, including debt prepayment and extinguishment costs, contingent consideration payments made after a business combination and distributions received from equity method investees, for which there was diversity in practice.

In November 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-18, Statement of Cash Flows: Restricted Cash (ASC 230). Under current guidance, restricted amounts of cash or cash equivalents are excluded from the cash flow statement. The new guidance requires restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents to be included in the reconciliation of beginning and end-of-period amounts presented on the statement of cash flows. In addition, the new guidance requires a description of the nature of the changes in restricted cash and cash equivalents during the periods presented.

The updated guidance in ASU 2016-15 and ASU 2016-18 are both effective for interim and annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted. White Mountains is evaluating the expected impact of this new guidance.

Credit Losses

In June 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-13, Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Instruments (ASC 326), which establishes new guidance for the recognition of credit losses for financial assets measured at amortized cost. The new ASU, which applies to financial assets that have the contractual right to receive cash requires reporting entities to estimate the credit losses expected over the life of a credit exposure using historical information, current information and reasonable and supportable forecasts that affect the collectability of the financial asset. The types of assets included in the scope of the new guidance includes premium receivables, reinsurance recoverables and loans. ASU 2016-13 is effective for annual periods beginning after January 1, 2020, including interim periods. White Mountains measures financial assets at fair value with changes therein recognized in current period earnings and accordingly, does not expect adoption to have a significant impact on its financial statements.

Stock Compensation

In March 2016, the Board issued ASU 2016-09, Improvements to Employee Share-Based Payment Accounting (ASC 718) which is intended to simplify certain aspects of the accounting for share-based compensation, including forfeiture assumptions, net settlement of equity awards for withholding taxes and accounting for excess tax benefits. The new guidance provides an accounting policy election to account for forfeitures by either applying an assumption, as required under existing guidance, or by recognizing forfeitures when they actually occur. The new ASU also permits net settlement of equity awards for withholding taxes up to the maximum statutory rate and requires such amounts to be classified as a financing activities in the statement of cash flows. In addition, the new guidance changes the accounting for excess tax benefits and deficiencies by requiring recognition in the income statement, with treatment of the tax effects as discrete items in determining a reporting entity’s effective rate in the period in which exercise or vesting of awards occurs. The new guidance became effective on January 1, 2017 for White Mountains and did not have a significant effect upon adoption.

Leases

In February 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-02, Leases (ASC 842). The new guidance requires lessees to recognize lease assets and liabilities on the balance sheet for both operating and financing leases, with the exception of leases with an original term of 12 months or less. Under existing guidance recognition of lease assets and liabilities is not required for operating leases. The lease assets and liabilities to be recognized are both measured initially based on the present value of the lease payments. Under the new guidance, a sale-leaseback transaction must meet the recognition criteria under ASC 606, Revenues in order to be accounted for as sale. The new guidance is effective for White Mountains for years beginning after December 15, 2018, including interim periods therein. White Mountains is evaluating the impact of this new guidance and available adoption methods.

Financial Instruments - Recognition and Measurement

In January 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-01, Recognition and Measurement of Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities (ASC 825-10). The new ASU modifies the guidance for financial instruments, including investments in equity securities. Under the new guidance, all equity securities with readily determinable fair values are required to be measured at fair value with changes therein recognized through current period earnings. In addition, the new ASU requires a qualitative assessment for equity securities without readily determinable fair values to identify impairment, and for impaired equity securities to be measured at fair value. ASU 2016-01 is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted. White Mountains measures its portfolio of investment securities at fair value with changes therein recognized through current period earnings accordingly, does not expect the adoption of ASU 2016-01 to have a significant impact on its financial statements.

Revenue Recognition

In May 2014, the FASB issued ASU 2014-09, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (ASC 606), which modifies the guidance for revenue recognition. Under ASU 2014-09, revenue is to be recognized at an amount that reflects the consideration to which an entity expects to be entitled in exchange for goods or services transferred to customers. The new guidance sets forth the steps to be followed to recognize revenue: (i) identify the contract(s) with a customer, (ii) identify the performance obligations in the contract, (iii) determine the transaction price, (iv) allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations in the contract and (v) recognize revenue when (or as) the entity satisfies a performance obligation. Subsequently, the FASB issued additional ASUs clarifying the guidance in and providing implementation guidance for ASU 2014-09. In August 2015, the FASB issued ASU 2015-14, Revenue from Contracts with Customers, which delays the effective date of ASU 2014-09 and all related ASUs to annual and interim reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2017. Most of White Mountains’s revenue from customers relates to insurance contracts, which are excluded from the scope of ASU 2014-09, as are investment income and investments gains and losses. However, the new guidance is applicable to some of White Mountains’s revenue streams, including certain fee arrangements as well as commissions and other non-insurance revenues. White Mountains is evaluating the new guidance, but does not expect ASU 2014-09 to have a significant effect on recognition of White Mountains’s non-insurance revenues from customers.