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Significant Accounting Policies (Policies) | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2017
Accounting Policies [Abstract] |
Basis of Presentation | The preparation of the Consolidated Financial Statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (GAAP) requires our management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses, and the related disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities. Actual results could differ from these estimates.
General | General Our Consolidated Financial Statements include all accounts of Laureate, our majority-owned subsidiaries, and educational institutions that are part of our network and, although not owned by Laureate, are variable interest entities (VIEs) pursuant to ASC Topic 810-10, "Consolidation." As of December 31, 2017 the Laureate network includes 12 VIE institutions in eight countries. Of these 12 institutions, five are included in continuing operations and seven are discontinued operations. Laureate has determined it is the "primary beneficiary" of these VIEs, as such term is defined in ASC 810-10-20, and has consolidated the financial results of operations, assets and liabilities, and cash flows of these VIEs in the Company's Consolidated Financial Statements. Intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation. As discussed further in Note 3, Discontinued Operations, our number of VIE institutions in discontinued operations was reduced by one in January 2018 following the sale of LEI Lie Ying Limited (LEILY). Noncontrolling Interests A noncontrolling interest is the portion of a subsidiary that is not attributable to us either directly or indirectly. A noncontrolling interest can also be referred to as a minority interest. We recognize noncontrolling interest holders’ share of equity and net income or loss separately in Noncontrolling interests in the Consolidated Balance Sheets and Net (income) loss attributable to noncontrolling interests in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. For the VIEs in our network, we generally do not recognize a noncontrolling interest. A noncontrolling interest is only recognized when a VIE's economics are shared with a third party (e.g., when the transferor of the control of the VIE retained a portion of the economics associated with it). The Variable Interest Entity (VIE) Arrangements Laureate consolidates in its financial statements certain internationally based educational organizations that do not have shares or other equity ownership interests. Although these educational organizations may be considered not-for-profit entities in their home countries and they are operated in compliance with their respective not-for-profit legal regimes, we believe they do not meet the definition of a not-for-profit entity under GAAP, and therefore we treat them as "for-profit" entities for accounting purposes. These entities generally cannot declare dividends or distribute their net assets to the entities that control them. Under ASC 810-10, "Consolidation," we have determined that these institutions are VIEs and that Laureate is the primary beneficiary of these VIEs because we have, as further described herein: (1) the power to direct the activities of the VIEs that most significantly affect their educational and economic performance and (2) the right to receive economic benefits from contractual and other arrangements with the VIEs that could potentially be significant to the VIEs. We account for the acquisition of the right to control a VIE in accordance with ASC 805, "Business Combinations." As with all of our educational institutions, the VIE institutions' primary source of income is tuition fees paid by students, for which the students receive educational services and goods that are proportionate to the prices charged. Laureate maintains control of these VIEs through our rights to designate a majority of the governing entities' board members, through which we have the legal ability to direct the activities of the entities. Laureate maintains a variable interest in these VIEs through mutual contractual arrangements at market rates and terms that provide them with necessary products and services, and/or intellectual property, and has the ability to enter into additional such contractual arrangements at market rates and terms. We also have the ability to transfer our rights to govern these VIEs, or the entities that possess those rights, to other parties, which could yield a return if and when these rights are transferred. We generally do not have legal entitlement to distribute the net assets of the VIEs. Generally, in the event of liquidation or the sale of the net assets of the VIEs, the net proceeds can only be transferred either to another VIE institution with similar purposes or to the government. In the unlikely case of liquidation or a sale of the net assets of the VIE, we may be able to retain the residual value by naming another Laureate-controlled VIE resident in the same jurisdiction as the recipient, if one exists; however we generally cannot name a for-profit entity as the recipient. Moreover, because the institution generally would be required to provide for the continued education of its students, liquidation would not be a likely course of action and would be unlikely to result in significant residual assets available for distribution. However, we operate our VIEs as going concern enterprises, maintain control in perpetuity, and have the ability to provide additional contractual arrangements for educational and other services priced at up to market rates with Laureate-controlled service companies. Typically, we are not legally obligated to make additional investments in the VIE institutions. Laureate for-profit entities provide necessary products and services, and/or intellectual property, to all institutions in the Laureate International Universities network, including the VIE institutions, through contractual arrangements at market rates and terms, which are accretive to Laureate. We periodically modify the rates we charge under these arrangements to ensure that they are priced at or below fair market value and to add additional services. If it is determined that contractual arrangements with any institution are not on market terms, it could have an adverse regulatory impact on such institution. We believe these arrangements improve the quality of the academic curriculum and the students' educational experience. There are currently four types of contractual arrangements: (i) intellectual property (IP) royalty arrangements; (ii) network fee arrangements; (iii) management service arrangements; and (iv) lease arrangements.
(i) | Under the IP royalty arrangements, institutions in the Laureate International Universities network pay to Laureate royalty payments for the use of Laureate's tradename and best practice policies and procedures.
(ii) | Institutions in the Laureate International Universities network gain access to other network resources, including academic content, support with curriculum design, online programs, professional development, student exchange and access to dual degree programs, through network fee arrangements whereby the institutions pay stipulated fees to Laureate for such access.
(iii) | Institutions in the Laureate International Universities network contract with Laureate and pay fees under management services agreements for the provision of support and managerial services including access to management, legal, tax, finance, accounting, treasury and other services, which in some cases Laureate provides through shared service arrangements in certain jurisdictions.
(iv) | Laureate for-profit entities, including for-profit entities in which the VIEs are investors, own various campus real estate properties and have entered into long-term lease contracts with the respective institutions in the Laureate International Universities network, whereby they pay market-based rents for the use of the properties in the conduct of their educational operations.
Revenues recognized by Laureate's for-profit entities from these contractual arrangements with our consolidated VIEs, including those in continuing operations and discontinued operations, were $123,237, $113,276 and $106,005 for the years ended December 31, 2017, 2016 and 2015, respectively. These revenues are eliminated in consolidation. Under our accounting policy, we allocate all of the income or losses of these VIEs to Laureate unless there is a noncontrolling interest where the economics of the VIE are shared with a third party. The income or losses of these VIEs allocated to Laureate represent the earnings after deducting charges related to contractual arrangements with our for-profit entities as described above. We believe that the income remaining at the VIEs after these charges accretes value to our rights to control these entities. Laureate's VIEs are generally exempt from income taxes. As a result, the VIEs generally do not record deferred tax assets or liabilities or recognize any income tax expense in the Consolidated Financial Statements. No deferred taxes are recognized by the for-profit service companies for the remaining income in these VIEs as the legal status of these entities generally prevents them from declaring dividends or making distributions to their sponsors. However, these for-profit service companies record income taxes related to revenues from their contractual arrangements with these VIEs.
Noncontrolling Interests | Noncontrolling Interests A noncontrolling interest is the portion of a subsidiary that is not attributable to us either directly or indirectly. A noncontrolling interest can also be referred to as a minority interest. We recognize noncontrolling interest holders’ share of equity and net income or loss separately in Noncontrolling interests in the Consolidated Balance Sheets and Net (income) loss attributable to noncontrolling interests in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. For the VIEs in our network, we generally do not recognize a noncontrolling interest. A noncontrolling interest is only recognized when a VIE's economics are shared with a third party (e.g., when the transferor of the control of the VIE retained a portion of the economics associated with it).
The Variable Interest Entity (VIE) Arrangements | The Variable Interest Entity (VIE) Arrangements Laureate consolidates in its financial statements certain internationally based educational organizations that do not have shares or other equity ownership interests. Although these educational organizations may be considered not-for-profit entities in their home countries and they are operated in compliance with their respective not-for-profit legal regimes, we believe they do not meet the definition of a not-for-profit entity under GAAP, and therefore we treat them as "for-profit" entities for accounting purposes. These entities generally cannot declare dividends or distribute their net assets to the entities that control them. Under ASC 810-10, "Consolidation," we have determined that these institutions are VIEs and that Laureate is the primary beneficiary of these VIEs because we have, as further described herein: (1) the power to direct the activities of the VIEs that most significantly affect their educational and economic performance and (2) the right to receive economic benefits from contractual and other arrangements with the VIEs that could potentially be significant to the VIEs. We account for the acquisition of the right to control a VIE in accordance with ASC 805, "Business Combinations." As with all of our educational institutions, the VIE institutions' primary source of income is tuition fees paid by students, for which the students receive educational services and goods that are proportionate to the prices charged. Laureate maintains control of these VIEs through our rights to designate a majority of the governing entities' board members, through which we have the legal ability to direct the activities of the entities. Laureate maintains a variable interest in these VIEs through mutual contractual arrangements at market rates and terms that provide them with necessary products and services, and/or intellectual property, and has the ability to enter into additional such contractual arrangements at market rates and terms. We also have the ability to transfer our rights to govern these VIEs, or the entities that possess those rights, to other parties, which could yield a return if and when these rights are transferred. We generally do not have legal entitlement to distribute the net assets of the VIEs. Generally, in the event of liquidation or the sale of the net assets of the VIEs, the net proceeds can only be transferred either to another VIE institution with similar purposes or to the government. In the unlikely case of liquidation or a sale of the net assets of the VIE, we may be able to retain the residual value by naming another Laureate-controlled VIE resident in the same jurisdiction as the recipient, if one exists; however we generally cannot name a for-profit entity as the recipient. Moreover, because the institution generally would be required to provide for the continued education of its students, liquidation would not be a likely course of action and would be unlikely to result in significant residual assets available for distribution. However, we operate our VIEs as going concern enterprises, maintain control in perpetuity, and have the ability to provide additional contractual arrangements for educational and other services priced at up to market rates with Laureate-controlled service companies. Typically, we are not legally obligated to make additional investments in the VIE institutions. Laureate for-profit entities provide necessary products and services, and/or intellectual property, to all institutions in the Laureate International Universities network, including the VIE institutions, through contractual arrangements at market rates and terms, which are accretive to Laureate. We periodically modify the rates we charge under these arrangements to ensure that they are priced at or below fair market value and to add additional services. If it is determined that contractual arrangements with any institution are not on market terms, it could have an adverse regulatory impact on such institution. We believe these arrangements improve the quality of the academic curriculum and the students' educational experience. There are currently four types of contractual arrangements: (i) intellectual property (IP) royalty arrangements; (ii) network fee arrangements; (iii) management service arrangements; and (iv) lease arrangements.
(i) | Under the IP royalty arrangements, institutions in the Laureate International Universities network pay to Laureate royalty payments for the use of Laureate's tradename and best practice policies and procedures.
(ii) | Institutions in the Laureate International Universities network gain access to other network resources, including academic content, support with curriculum design, online programs, professional development, student exchange and access to dual degree programs, through network fee arrangements whereby the institutions pay stipulated fees to Laureate for such access.
(iii) | Institutions in the Laureate International Universities network contract with Laureate and pay fees under management services agreements for the provision of support and managerial services including access to management, legal, tax, finance, accounting, treasury and other services, which in some cases Laureate provides through shared service arrangements in certain jurisdictions.
(iv) | Laureate for-profit entities, including for-profit entities in which the VIEs are investors, own various campus real estate properties and have entered into long-term lease contracts with the respective institutions in the Laureate International Universities network, whereby they pay market-based rents for the use of the properties in the conduct of their educational operations.
Revenues recognized by Laureate's for-profit entities from these contractual arrangements with our consolidated VIEs, including those in continuing operations and discontinued operations, were $123,237, $113,276 and $106,005 for the years ended December 31, 2017, 2016 and 2015, respectively. These revenues are eliminated in consolidation. Under our accounting policy, we allocate all of the income or losses of these VIEs to Laureate unless there is a noncontrolling interest where the economics of the VIE are shared with a third party. The income or losses of these VIEs allocated to Laureate represent the earnings after deducting charges related to contractual arrangements with our for-profit entities as described above. We believe that the income remaining at the VIEs after these charges accretes value to our rights to control these entities. Laureate's VIEs are generally exempt from income taxes. As a result, the VIEs generally do not record deferred tax assets or liabilities or recognize any income tax expense in the Consolidated Financial Statements. No deferred taxes are recognized by the for-profit service companies for the remaining income in these VIEs as the legal status of these entities generally prevents them from declaring dividends or making distributions to their sponsors. However, these for-profit service companies record income taxes related to revenues from their contractual arrangements with these VIEs. Risks in relation to the VIEs We believe that all of the VIE institutions in the Laureate network are operated in full compliance with local law and that the contractual arrangements with the VIEs are legally enforceable; however, these VIEs are subject to regulation by various agencies based on the requirements of local jurisdictions. These agencies, as well as local legislative bodies, review and update laws and regulations as they deem necessary or appropriate. We cannot predict the form of any laws that may be enacted, or regulations that ultimately may be adopted in the future, or what effects they might have on our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows. If local laws or regulations were to change, if the VIEs were found to be in violation of existing local laws or regulations, or if the regulators were to question the financial sustainability of the VIEs and/or whether the contractual arrangements were at fair value, local government agencies could, among other actions:
• | revoke the business licenses and/or accreditations of the VIE institutions;
• | void or restrict related-party transactions, such as the contractual arrangements between Laureate and the VIE institutions;
• | impose fines that significantly impact business performance or other requirements with which the VIEs may not be able to comply;
• | require Laureate to change the VIEs' governance structures, such that Laureate would no longer maintain control of the activities of the VIEs; or
• | disallow a transfer of our rights to govern these VIEs, or the entities that possess those rights, to a third party for consideration.
Laureate's ability to conduct our business would be negatively affected if local governments were to carry out any of the aforementioned or other similar actions. In any such case, Laureate may no longer be able to consolidate the VIEs.
Affiliates | Affiliates When Laureate exercises significant influence over an affiliated entity, but does not control the entity, we account for our investments using the equity method of accounting. Significant influence occurs generally through ownership, directly or indirectly, of at least 20% and up to 50% of the voting interests. Under the equity method of accounting, Laureate records the proportionate share of these investments in Other assets in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Our proportionate share of income or loss related to these investments is recorded in Equity in net income of affiliates, net of tax, in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. Equity investments in which we do not exercise significant influence, generally through ownership of less than 20% of the voting rights, are accounted for using the cost method of accounting. Under the cost method of accounting, the investment is carried at cost on the Consolidated Balance Sheets in Other assets and income is recognized when dividends are received. Impairments are recognized for an equity or cost method investment when and if the investment suffers an other-than-temporary decline in value. At that time, the investment is adjusted to its new fair value and the difference is recognized as a loss in our Consolidated Statements of Operations. For equity method investments, this impairment loss is included in Equity in net income of affiliates, net of tax.
Business Combinations | Business Combinations Effective January 1, 2009, Laureate adopted the accounting guidance for business combinations as prescribed by ASC 805, "Business Combinations." When we complete a business combination, all tangible and identifiable intangible assets acquired and all liabilities assumed are recorded at fair value. Any excess purchase price is recorded as goodwill. Transaction costs associated with business combinations are expensed as incurred. If Laureate acquires less than 100% of an entity (a partial acquisition) and consolidates the entity upon acquisition, all assets and liabilities, including noncontrolling interests, are recorded at their estimated fair value. When a partial acquisition results in Laureate obtaining control of an entity, Laureate remeasures any previously existing investment in the entity at fair value and records a gain or loss. Partial acquisitions in which Laureate’s control does not change are accounted for as equity transactions. Revenues and the results of operations of the acquired business are included in the accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements commencing on the date of acquisition. Laureate accounts for acquired businesses using the acquisition method of accounting. Certain acquisitions require the payment of contingent amounts of purchase consideration if specified operating results are achieved in periods subsequent to the acquisition date. For acquisitions consummated on or after January 1, 2009, we record such contingent consideration at fair value on the acquisition date, with subsequent adjustments recognized in Direct costs in our Consolidated Statements of Operations. We classify the subsequent cash payments of contingencies that are recorded at the acquisition date within financing activities in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows. Contingent consideration arrangements related to acquisitions consummated prior to January 1, 2009 result in additional goodwill being recorded upon settlement of the underlying contingencies, with the settlement of these contingencies by transfer of cash classified within investing activities in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows. Laureate generally obtains indemnification from the sellers of the higher education institutions upon acquisition for various contingent liabilities that may arise and are related to pre-acquisition events in order to protect itself from economic losses arising from such exposures. Prior to January 1, 2009, we did not record indemnification assets related to any liabilities recorded as part of the purchase price allocation. Instead, an indemnification asset was recorded when the seller was obligated to make a payment under the indemnification and the amount was determined to be reasonably assured of collection. In cases in which the contingent liability was extinguished for an amount less than originally established or the related statute of limitations lapses such that the contingent amount was no longer required to be paid, the remaining liability was reversed, and any difference between the liability's carrying value and settlement amount was recognized in our Consolidated Statements of Operations. For acquisitions consummated on or after January 1, 2009, we recognize an indemnification asset at the same time and on the same basis as the related indemnified item, subject to any contractual limitations and to the extent that collection is reasonably assured, in accordance with ASC 805. When indemnified, subsequent changes in the indemnified item are offset by changes in the indemnification asset. We assess the realizability of the indemnification assets each reporting period. The Company records changes in uncertain income tax positions as a component of Income tax benefit (expense), while related changes to the indemnification asset are included in Operating income in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. Changes in the principal portion of non-income tax contingencies, as well as changes in any related indemnification asset, are included in Operating income.
Redeemable Noncontrolling Interests and Equity | Redeemable Noncontrolling Interests and Equity In certain cases, Laureate initially purchases a majority ownership interest in a company and uses various put and call arrangements with the noncontrolling interest holders that require or enable us to purchase all or a portion of the remaining minority ownership at a later date. The nature of these Minority Put Arrangements and our accounting for the redeemable noncontrolling interests are discussed below. Minority Put Arrangements Minority Put Arrangements give noncontrolling interest holders the right to require Laureate to purchase their shares (i.e., Put option). The Put option price is generally established by multiplying an agreed-upon earnings measurement of the acquired company by a negotiated factor within a specified time frame. The future earnings measurement is based on an agreed-upon set of rules that are not necessarily consistent with GAAP, which we refer to as “non-GAAP earnings.” Laureate accounts for all of these Minority Put Arrangements as temporary equity in an account presented between liabilities and equity called Redeemable noncontrolling interests and equity on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. This classification is appropriate because the instruments are contingently redeemable based on events outside Laureate’s control. This accounting treatment is in accordance with ASC 480-10-S99, “Distinguishing Liabilities from Equity.” Redeemable noncontrolling interests are accreted to their redemption value (Put value) over the period from the date of issuance to the first date on which the Put option is exercisable. The change in Put value is recorded against Additional paid-in capital since Laureate has an Accumulated deficit. If Laureate had retained earnings, then the change in Put value would be recorded against retained earnings. In a computation of earnings per share, the accretion of redeemable noncontrolling interests to their redemption value would be a reduction of earnings available to common stockholders.
Foreign Currency Translation and Transaction Gains and Losses | Foreign Currency Translation and Transaction Gains and Losses The United States Dollar (USD) is the functional currency of Laureate and our subsidiaries operating in the United States. Our subsidiaries’ financial statements are maintained in their functional currencies. The functional currency of each of our foreign subsidiaries is the currency of the economic environment in which the subsidiary primarily does business. Our foreign subsidiaries’ financial statements are translated into USD using the exchange rates applicable to the dates of the financial statements. Assets and liabilities are translated into USD using the period-end spot foreign exchange rates. Income and expenses are translated at the weighted-average exchange rates in effect during the period. Equity accounts are translated at historical exchange rates. The effects of these translation adjustments are reported as a component of Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) included in the Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity. Laureate has certain intercompany loans that are deemed to have the characteristics of a long-term investment. That is, the settlement of the intercompany loan is not planned or anticipated in the foreseeable future. Transaction gains and losses related to these types of loans are recorded as a component of Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) included in the Consolidated Statements of Stockholders’ Equity. Transaction gains and losses related to all other intercompany loans are included in Foreign currency exchange gain (loss), net in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. For any transaction that is in a currency different from the entity’s functional currency, Laureate records a gain or loss based on the difference between the exchange rate at the transaction date and the exchange rate at the transaction settlement date (or rate at period end, if unsettled) as Foreign currency exchange gain (loss), net in the Consolidated Statements of Operations.
Cash and Cash Equivalents | Cash and Cash Equivalents Laureate considers all highly liquid investments that are purchased with an original maturity of three months or less to be cash equivalents.
Fair Value Measurement | Financial Instruments Laureate’s financial instruments consist of cash and cash equivalents, restricted cash and investments, accounts and notes receivable, other receivables, accounts payable, amounts due to shareholders of acquired companies, derivative instruments, debt, capital lease obligations, and redeemable noncontrolling interests and equity. The fair value of these financial instruments approximates their carrying amounts reported in the Consolidated Balance Sheets with the exception of debt, as discussed in Note 10, Debt. Additional information about fair value is provided in Note 21, Fair Value Measurement. Our cash accounts are maintained with high-quality financial institutions with no significant concentration in any one institution. Our accounts receivable are not concentrated with any one significant customer. Our United States institutions participate in the DOE Title IV program and certain Chilean institutions in the Laureate network participate in a government-sponsored student financing program known as the Crédito con Aval del Estado, the CAE Program. During the course of the year, Laureate could have material receivables related to Title IV and the CAE Program. Fair Value Measurement Fair value is defined as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to settle a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. Accounting standards utilize a fair value hierarchy that prioritizes the inputs to valuation techniques used to measure fair value into three levels, which are described below:
• | Level 1 – Quoted prices (unadjusted) for identical assets or liabilities in active markets;
• | Level 2 – Observable inputs other than quoted prices that are either directly or indirectly observable for the asset or liability;
• | Level 3 – Unobservable inputs that are supported by little or no market activity.
These levels are not necessarily an indication of the risk of liquidity associated with the financial assets or liabilities disclosed. Assets and liabilities are classified in their entirety based on the lowest level of input that is significant to the fair value measurement, as required under ASC 820-10, "Fair Value Measurement." Derivative instruments – Laureate uses derivative instruments as economic hedges for bank debt and interest rate risk. Their values are derived using valuation models commonly used for derivatives. These valuation models require a variety of inputs, including contractual terms, market prices, forward-price yield curves, notional quantities, measures of volatility and correlations of such inputs. Our valuation models also reflect measurements for credit risk. Laureate concluded that the fair values of our derivatives are based on unobservable inputs, or Level 3 assumptions. The significant unobservable input used in the fair value measurement of the Company's derivative instruments is our own credit risk. Holding other inputs constant, a significant increase (decrease) in our own credit risk would result in a significantly lower (higher) fair value measurement for the Company's derivative instruments.
Restricted Cash and Investments | Restricted Cash and Investments Laureate’s United States institutions participate in the United States Department of Education (DOE) Title IV student financing assistance lending programs (Title IV programs). Restricted cash and investments includes cash equivalents and short-term investments held to collateralize standby letters of credit in favor of the DOE. Letters of credit are required by the DOE in order to allow our United States institutions to participate in the Title IV program. In addition, Laureate may at times have restricted cash in escrow pending potential acquisition transactions, hold a United States deposit for a letter of credit in lieu of a surety bond, or otherwise have cash that is not immediately available for use in current operations.
Accounts and Notes Receivable | Accounts and Notes Receivable We recognize student receivables when an academic session begins, although students generally enroll in courses prior to the start of the academic session. Receivables are recognized only to the extent that amounts are due and collection is reasonably assured. Laureate offers long-term financing through note receivable agreements with students at certain of our institutions. These notes receivable generally are not collateralized. Non-interest bearing, long-term student receivables are recorded at present value using a discount rate approximating the unsecured borrowing rate for an individual. Differences between the present value and the principal amount of long-term student receivables are accreted through Interest income over their terms. Occasionally, certain of our institutions have sold certain long-term student receivables to local financial institutions without recourse. These transactions were deemed sales of receivables and the receivables were derecognized from our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Certain Chilean institutions in the Laureate network also participate in the CAE Program. In this program, these institutions provide guarantees to third-party financing institutions for tuition loans made to qualifying students.
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts | Allowance for Doubtful Accounts Receivables are deemed to be uncollectible when they have been outstanding for two years, or earlier when collection efforts have ceased, at which time they are written off. Prior to that, Laureate records an allowance for doubtful accounts to reduce our receivables to their net realizable value. Our allowance estimation methodology is based on the age of the receivables, the status of past-due amounts, historical collection trends, current economic conditions and student enrollment status. In the event that current collection trends differ from historical trends, an adjustment is made to the allowance account and bad debt expense.
Property and Equipment, and Leased Assets | Property and Equipment, and Leased Assets Property and equipment includes land, buildings, furniture, equipment, software, library books, leasehold improvements, and construction in-progress. We record property and equipment at cost less accumulated depreciation and amortization. Software that is developed for internal use is classified within the line item titled Furniture, equipment and software in our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Repairs and maintenance costs are expensed as incurred. Assets under construction are recorded in Construction in-progress until they are available for use. Interest is capitalized as a component of the cost of projects during the construction period. We conduct a significant portion of our operations at leased facilities. Laureate analyzes each lease agreement to determine whether it should be classified as a capital or an operating lease. We recognize operating lease rent expense on a straight-line basis over the expected term of each lease. In some instances, we enter into arrangements in which the landlord will construct real estate assets to be used for our business operations. In some cases, we are responsible for construction cost overruns or nonstandard tenant improvements. Laureate reviews these leases to determine whether we bear substantially all of the construction period risks and, therefore, should be considered for accounting purposes to be the "owner" of the real estate project. If we are deemed to be the owner we are required to capitalize the construction costs on our Consolidated Balance Sheet. Upon completion of the project, we perform a sale-leaseback analysis pursuant to guidance on accounting for leases to determine if we can remove the assets from our Consolidated Balance Sheet. For some of these leases, we are considered to have “continuing involvement,” which precludes us from derecognizing the assets from our Consolidated Balance Sheet when construction is complete (a failed sale-leaseback). In conjunction with these leases, we capitalize the construction costs on our Consolidated Balance Sheet and also record financing obligations representing payments owed to the landlord. We do not report rent expense for the properties which are owned for accounting purposes. For capital leases, we initially record the assets at the lower of fair value or the present value of the future minimum lease payments, excluding executory costs. If the lease agreement includes a legal obligation that requires the leased premises to be returned in a predetermined condition, we recognize an asset retirement obligation and a corresponding depreciating asset, when such an asset exists. Depreciation is recorded on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful lives of the assets. Leasehold improvements, including structural improvements, are amortized using the straight-line method over the lesser of the estimated useful life of the asset or the lease term, including reasonably-assured renewals or purchase options that are considered likely to be exercised. Laureate includes the amortization of assets recorded under capital leases within depreciation expense. Assets under capital leases are typically amortized over the related lease term using the straight-line method. Depreciation and amortization periods are as follows:
Buildings | 10-50 years
Furniture, equipment and software | 2-10 years
Leasehold improvements | 2-25 years
Land Use Rights | Land Use Rights Certain of our institutions have obtained land use rights for certain time periods from government authorities. Land use rights allow us to use the land to build our campus facilities. Upon expiry of a land use right, it will either be renewed or the land will be returned to the government authority. Land use rights are stated at cost less accumulated amortization and any recognized impairment loss. Amortization is provided on a straight-line basis over the respective term of the land use right agreement, and is recorded as rent expense within Direct costs in our Consolidated Statements of Operations.
Direct and Deferred Costs | Direct and Deferred Costs Direct costs reported on the Consolidated Statements of Operations represent the cost of operations, including selling and administrative expenses, which are directly attributable to specific business units. Deferred costs on the Consolidated Balance Sheets consist primarily of direct costs associated with online course development and accreditation. Deferred costs associated with the development of online educational programs are capitalized after technological feasibility has been established. Deferred online course development costs are amortized to Direct costs on a straight-line basis over the estimated period that the associated products are expected to generate revenues. Deferred online course development costs are evaluated on a quarterly basis through review of the corresponding course catalog. If a course is no longer listed or offered in the current course catalog, then the costs associated with its development are written off. As of December 31, 2017 and 2016, the unamortized balances of online course development costs were $57,995 and $52,510, respectively. Laureate defers direct and incremental third-party costs incurred for obtaining initial accreditation and for the renewal of accreditations. These accreditation costs are amortized to Direct costs over the life of the accreditation on a straight-line basis.
Debt Issuance Costs | Debt Issuance Costs Debt issuance costs were paid as a result of certain debt transactions and are presented as a deduction from debt. These debt issuance costs are amortized over the term of the associated debt instruments. The amortization expense is recognized as a component of Interest expense in the Consolidated Statements of Operations.
Goodwill | Goodwill Goodwill primarily represents the amounts paid by Wengen Alberta, Limited Partnership (Wengen) in excess of the fair value of the net assets acquired in the merger transaction (see Note 8, Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets), plus the excess purchase price over fair value of net assets for businesses acquired after the merger transaction. Goodwill is evaluated annually as of October 1st each year for impairment at the reporting unit level, in accordance with ASC 350, “Intangibles - Goodwill and Other.” We also evaluate goodwill for impairment on an interim basis if events or changes in circumstances between annual tests indicate that the asset may be impaired. Goodwill is impaired when the carrying amount of a reporting unit’s goodwill exceeds its implied fair value. A reporting unit is defined as a component of an operating segment for which discrete financial information is available and regularly reviewed by management of the segment. We have not made material changes to the methodology used to assess impairment loss during the past three fiscal years. We have the option of first performing a qualitative assessment (i.e., step zero) before calculating the fair value of the reporting unit (i.e., step one of the two-step fair value-based impairment test). If we determine on the basis of qualitative factors that the fair value of the reporting unit is more likely than not less than the carrying amount, the two-step impairment test is required. If we do not perform the qualitative assessment for a reporting unit or determine that it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, a quantitative two-step fair value-based test is performed. In the first step, we estimate the fair value of each reporting unit, utilizing a weighted combination of a discounted cash flow analysis and a market multiples analysis. If the recorded net assets of the reporting unit are less than the reporting unit’s estimated fair value, then there is no goodwill deemed to be impaired. If the recorded net assets of the reporting unit exceed its estimated fair value, then goodwill is potentially impaired and Laureate calculates the implied fair value of goodwill, by deducting the estimated fair value of all tangible and identifiable intangible net assets of the reporting unit from the estimated fair value of the reporting unit. If the recorded amount of goodwill exceeds this implied fair value, the difference is recognized as a Loss on impairment of assets in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. Our valuation approach utilizes a weighted combination of a discounted cash flow analysis and a market multiples analysis, where available. The discounted cash flow analysis relies on historical data and internal estimates, which are developed as a part of our long-range plan process, and includes an estimate of terminal value based on these expected cash flows using the generally accepted Gordon Dividend Growth formula, which derives a valuation using an assumed perpetual annuity based on the reporting unit’s residual cash flows. The discount rate is based on the generally accepted Weighted Average Cost of Capital methodology, and is derived using a cost of equity based on the generally accepted Capital Asset Pricing Model and a cost of debt based on the typical rate paid by market participants. The market multiples analysis utilizes multiples of business enterprise value to revenues, operating income and earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization of comparable publicly traded companies and multiples based on fair value transactions where public information is available. Significant assumptions used in estimating the fair value include: (1) discount and growth rates, and (2) our long-range plan which includes enrollment, pricing, planned capital expenditures and operating margins. Management reviews the sum of the estimated fair value of all Laureate’s reporting units to Laureate’s enterprise value to corroborate the results of its weighted combination approach to determining fair value.
Other Intangible Assets | Other Intangible Assets Other intangible assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheets include acquired indefinite-lived Tradenames, which are valued using the relief-from-royalty method. This method estimates the amount of royalty expense that we would expect to incur if the assets were licensed from a third party. We use publicly available information and proprietary third-party arm’s length agreements that Laureate has entered into with various licensors in determining certain assumptions to assist us in estimating fair value using market participant assumptions. Any costs incurred to internally develop new tradenames are expensed as incurred. Accreditations are not considered a separate unit of account and their values are embedded in the cash flows generated by the institution, which are used to value its tradename. The Company does not believe accreditations have significant value on their own due to the fact that they are neither exclusive nor scarce, and the direct costs associated with obtaining accreditations are not material. Indefinite-lived intangibles are evaluated annually as of October 1st each year for impairment as well as on an interim basis if events or changes in circumstances between annual tests indicate that the asset may be impaired. The impairment test for indefinite-lived intangible assets generally requires a new determination of the fair value of the intangible asset using the relief-from-royalty method. If the fair value of the intangible asset is less than its carrying value, the intangible asset is adjusted to its new estimated fair value, and an impairment loss is recognized. Other intangible assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheets also include intangible assets with finite useful lives such as acquired student rosters and non-compete agreements. We use the income approach to establish the asset values of these intangible assets. The cost of finite-lived intangible assets is amortized on a straight-line basis over the intangible assets’ estimated useful lives.
Long-lived Assets | Long-lived Assets Long-lived assets, including finite-lived intangible assets, are reviewed for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of an asset or group of assets may not be fully recoverable. These events or changes in circumstances may include, but are not limited to, a significant deterioration of operating results, a change in regulatory environment, changes in business plans, or adverse changes in anticipated future cash flows. If an impairment indicator is present, we evaluate recoverability by a comparison of the carrying amount of the assets to future undiscounted net cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the assets. If the assets are determined to be impaired, the impairment recognized is the excess of the carrying amount over the fair value of the assets. Fair value is generally determined by the discounted cash flow method. The discount rate used in any estimate of discounted cash flows is the rate commensurate with a similar investment of similar risk.
Derivative Instruments | Derivative Instruments In the normal course of business, our operations have significant exposure to fluctuations in foreign currency values and interest rate changes. Accordingly, Laureate mitigates a portion of these risks through a risk-management program that includes the use of derivative financial instruments (derivatives). Laureate selectively enters into foreign exchange forward contracts to reduce the earnings impact related to receivables and payables that are denominated in foreign currencies. In addition, Laureate uses interest rate swaps to mitigate certain risks associated with floating-rate debt arrangements. We do not engage in speculative or leveraged transactions, nor do we hold or issue derivatives for trading purposes. Laureate reports all derivatives on our Consolidated Balance Sheets at fair value, including any identified embedded derivatives. Realized and unrealized gains and/or losses resulting from derivatives are recognized in our Consolidated Statements of Operations, unless designated and effective as a hedge. For derivatives that are both designated and effective as cash flow hedges, gains or losses associated with the change in fair value of the derivatives are recognized on our Consolidated Balance Sheets as a component of Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) and amortized over the term of the related hedged items. For derivatives that are both designated and effective as net investment hedges, gains or losses associated with the change in fair value of the derivatives are recognized on our Consolidated Balance Sheets as a component of Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss). In the normal course of business, our operations are exposed to fluctuations in foreign currency values and interest rate changes. We may seek to control a portion of these risks through a risk management program that includes the use of derivative instruments. The interest and principal payments for Laureate’s senior long-term debt arrangements are to be paid primarily in USD. Our ability to make debt payments is subject to fluctuations in the value of the USD against foreign currencies, since a majority of our operating cash used to make these payments is generated by subsidiaries with functional currencies other than USD. As part of our overall risk management policies, Laureate has at times entered into foreign currency swap contracts and floating-to-fixed interest rate swap contracts. In addition, we occasionally enter into foreign exchange forward contracts to reduce the impact of other non-functional currency-denominated receivables and payables. We do not enter into speculative or leveraged transactions, nor do we hold or issue derivatives for trading purposes. We generally intend to hold our derivatives until maturity. Laureate reports all derivatives at fair value. These contracts are recognized as either assets or liabilities, depending upon the derivative’s fair value. Gains or losses associated with the change in the fair value of these swaps are recognized in our Consolidated Statements of Operations on a current basis over the term of the contracts, unless designated and effective as a hedge. For swaps that are designated and effective as cash flow hedges, gains or losses associated with the change in fair value of the swaps are recognized in our Consolidated Balance Sheets as a component of Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income (AOCI) and amortized into earnings as a component of Interest expense over the term of the related hedged items. For derivatives that are both designated and effective as net investment hedges, gains or losses associated with the change in fair value of the derivatives are recognized on our Consolidated Balance Sheets as a component of AOCI.
Revenue Recognition | Revenue Recognition Laureate’s revenues primarily consist of tuition and educational service revenues. We also generate revenues from student fees, dormitory/residency fees, and education-related activities. Revenues are reported net of scholarships and other discounts, refunds, waivers and the fair value of any guarantees made by Laureate related to student financing programs. Laureate’s institutions have various billing and academic cycles. Collectibility is determined on a student-by-student basis at the time of enrollment. Generally, students cannot re-enroll for the next academic session without satisfactory resolution of any past-due amounts. Tuition revenues are recognized ratably on a weekly straight-line basis over each academic session. Deferred revenue and student deposits on our Consolidated Balance Sheets consist of tuition paid prior to the start of academic sessions and unearned tuition amounts recorded as accounts receivable after an academic session begins. If a student withdraws from an institution, Laureate’s obligation to issue a refund depends on the refund policy at that institution and the timing of the student’s withdrawal. Generally, our refund obligations are reduced over the course of the academic term. We record refunds as a reduction of Deferred revenue and student deposits, as applicable. Once a student withdraws, the Company recognizes revenue on a cash basis as collectibility is not reasonably assured. Dormitory revenues are recognized over the occupancy period. Revenues from the sale of educational products are generally recognized upon delivery and when collectibility is reasonably assured. Student fees and other revenues, which include revenues from contractual arrangements with unconsolidated institutions, are recognized as earned over the appropriate service period.
Advertising | Advertising Laureate expenses advertising costs as incurred.
Share-based Compensation | Share-based Compensation Share-based compensation expense is based on the grant-date fair value estimated in accordance with the provisions of ASC 718, “Compensation – Stock Compensation.” Laureate recognizes share-based compensation expense, less estimated forfeitures, on a straight-line basis over the requisite service period for time based awards and graded vesting basis for performance based awards. Laureate estimates forfeitures based on historical activity, expected employee turnover, and other qualitative factors which are adjusted for changes in estimates and award vesting. All expenses for an award will be recognized by the time it becomes fully vested. We use the Black-Scholes-Merton option pricing model to calculate the fair value of stock options. This option valuation model requires the use of subjective assumptions, including the estimated fair value of the underlying common stock, the expected stock price volatility, and the expected term of the option. Prior to the IPO, the estimated fair value of the underlying common stock was based on third-party valuations. After our IPO, the estimated fair value of the underlying common stock is based on the closing price of our Class A common stock on the grant date. Our volatility estimates are based on a peer group of companies. We estimate the expected term of awards to be the weighted average mid-point between the vesting date and the end of the contractual term. We use this method to estimate the expected term since we do not have sufficient historical exercise data. Laureate has granted restricted stock, restricted stock units, stock options, and performance awards for which the vesting is based on annual performance metrics of the Company. For interim periods, we use our year-to-date actual results, financial forecasts, and other available information to estimate the probability of the award vesting based on the performance metrics. In one case, Laureate granted a small number of restricted stock units where vesting is based on the fulfillment of both a service condition and a market condition; a Monte Carlo simulation method was used to estimate the grant date fair value these awards.
Income Taxes | Income Taxes Laureate records the amount of taxes payable or refundable for the current year. Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recorded with respect to temporary differences in the accounting treatment of items for GAAP financial reporting purposes and for income tax purposes. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using enacted tax rates in effect for the year in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities of a change in tax rates is recognized in earnings in the period in which the new rate is enacted. Where, based on the weight of all available evidence, it is more likely than not that some portion of recorded deferred tax assets will not be realized, a valuation allowance is established for the amount that, in management's judgment, is sufficient to reduce the deferred tax asset to an amount that is more likely than not to be realized. A tax position must meet a minimum probability threshold before a financial statement benefit is recognized. The minimum threshold is defined as a tax position that is more likely than not to be sustained upon examination by the applicable taxing authority, including resolution of any related appeals or litigation processes, based on the technical merits of the position and having full knowledge of all relevant information. We earn a significant portion of our income from subsidiaries located in countries outside the United States. Deferred tax liabilities have not been recognized for undistributed foreign earnings because management believes that the earnings will be indefinitely reinvested outside the United States under the Company's planned tax neutral methods. Our assertion that earnings from our foreign operations will be indefinitely reinvested is supported by projected working capital and long-term capital plans in each foreign subsidiary location in which the earnings are generated. Additionally, we believe that we have the ability to indefinitely reinvest foreign earnings based on our domestic operation's cash repatriation strategies, projected cash flows, projected working capital and liquidity, and the expected availability of capital within the debt or equity markets. As described further in Note 16, Income Taxes, this assertion is provisional as of December 31, 2017. If our expectations change based on future developments, including further evaluation of the impacts of tax reform legislation, such that some or all of the undistributed earnings of our foreign subsidiaries may be remitted to the United States in the foreseeable future, we will be required to recognize deferred tax expense and liabilities on those amounts.
Contingencies | Contingencies Laureate accrues for contingent obligations when it is probable that a liability is incurred and the amount or range of amounts is reasonably estimable. As new facts become known to management, the assumptions related to a contingency are reviewed and adjustments are made, as necessary. Any legal costs incurred related to contingencies are expensed as incurred.
Recently Issued Accounting Standards Not Yet Adopted and Adopted | Recently Issued Accounting Standards Not Yet Adopted Accounting Standards Update (ASU) No. 2017-12 (ASU 2017-12), Derivatives and Hedging (Topic 815): Targeted Improvements to Accounting for Hedging Activities On August 28, 2017, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issued ASU 2017-12, which contains significant amendments to the hedge accounting model. The new guidance is intended to simplify the application of hedge accounting and should allow for more hedging strategies to qualify for hedge accounting. ASU 2017-12 also amends the presentation and disclosure requirements and changes how companies assess effectiveness. Public business entities like Laureate will have until the end of the first quarter in which a hedge is designated to perform an initial assessment of a hedge’s effectiveness. After initial qualification, the new guidance permits a qualitative effectiveness assessment for certain hedges instead of a quantitative test, such as a regression analysis, if the company can reasonably support an expectation of high effectiveness throughout the term of the hedge. An initial quantitative test to establish that the hedge relationship is highly effective is still required. The effective date of this ASU for Laureate is January 1, 2019. Early adoption is permitted in any interim period or fiscal year before the effective date. However, if the guidance is early adopted in an interim period, any adjustments would be reflected as of the beginning of the fiscal year that includes that interim period. Laureate is still evaluating whether to early adopt this ASU. ASU No. 2017-07 (ASU 2017-07), Compensation - Retirement Benefits (Topic 715) In March 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-07 in order to improve the presentation of net periodic pension cost and net period post retirement benefit cost. Under current GAAP, these costs comprise several components that reflect different aspects of an employer's financial arrangements as well as the cost of benefits provided to employees, and are aggregated for reporting purposes. Under the amendments in this Update, the service cost component of net period benefit cost is to be disaggregated and reported in the same line item(s) as other compensation costs arising from services rendered during the period, and the remaining components are to be presented on the income statement separately from the service cost component and outside a subtotal of income from operations, if presented. This ASU was effective for Laureate on January 1, 2018. We do not expect that this ASU will have a material effect on our Consolidated Financial Statements. ASU No. 2017-04 (ASU 2017-04), Intangibles - Goodwill and Other (Topic 350): Simplifying the Test for Goodwill Impairment In January 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-04 in order to simplify the test for goodwill impairment by eliminating Step 2, which measures a goodwill impairment loss by comparing the implied fair value of a reporting unit's goodwill with the carrying amount of that goodwill. Under the amendments in this ASU, an entity should perform its annual goodwill impairment test by comparing the fair value of a reporting unit with its carrying amount and should recognize an impairment charge for the amount by which the carrying amount exceeds the reporting unit's fair value. However, the loss recognized should not exceed the total amount of goodwill allocated to that reporting unit. This ASU is effective for Laureate beginning on January 1, 2020 and early adoption is permitted for interim or annual goodwill impairment tests performed on testing dates after January 1, 2017. We are still evaluating the impact of ASU 2017-04 on our Consolidated Financial Statements and whether we will early adopt this ASU for goodwill impairment tests performed on testing dates after January 1, 2018. ASU No. 2016-18 (ASU 2016-18), Statement of Cash Flows (Topic 230): Restricted Cash In November 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-18 in order to address the diversity that exists in the classification and presentation of changes in restricted cash on the statement of cash flows under Topic 230, Statement of Cash Flows. The amendments in this ASU require that a statement of cash flows explain the change during the period in the total of cash, cash equivalents, and amounts generally described as restricted cash or restricted cash equivalents. Therefore, amounts generally described as restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents should be included with cash and cash equivalents when reconciling the beginning-of-period and end-of-period total amounts shown on the statement of cash flows. The amendments in this ASU apply to all entities that have restricted cash or restricted cash equivalents and are required to present a statement of cash flows under Topic 230. This ASU was effective for Laureate beginning January 1, 2018. The adoption of ASU 2016-18 will result in a change in presentation within the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows. As required, Laureate will retrospectively apply the guidance in this ASU beginning with the Form 10-Q issued for the period ending March 31, 2018. During the years ended December 31, 2017, 2016 and 2015, our operating cash inflows (outflows) included $3,824, $(7,686) and $(932), respectively, related to changes in restricted cash, and our investing cash outflows included $(39,848), $(28,063), and $(15,452), respectively, related to changes in restricted cash. ASU No. 2016-16 (ASU 2016-16), Income Taxes (Topic 740): Intra-Entity Transfers of Assets Other Than Inventory In October 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-16 in order to improve the accounting for income tax consequences for intra-entity transfers of assets other than inventory. Under current GAAP, the recognition of current and deferred income taxes for an intra-entity transfer is prohibited until the asset has been sold to a third party. The amendments in this ASU state that an entity should recognize income tax consequences of an intra-entity transfer when the transfer occurs. This aligns the recognition of income tax consequences for intra-entity transfers of assets with International Financing Reporting Standards (IFRS). ASU 2016-16 is effective for Laureate beginning on January 1, 2018. The amendments in this ASU should be applied on a modified retrospective basis through a cumulative-effect adjustment directly to retained earnings as of the beginning of the period of adoption. The Company does not expect it to have a material effect on our Consolidated Financial Statements. ASU No. 2016-15 (ASU 2016-15), Statement of Cash Flows (Topic 230): Classification of Certain Cash Receipts and Cash Payments In August 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-15 in order to address the diversity in practice in how certain cash receipts and cash payments are presented and classified in the statement of cash flows under Topic 230, Statement of Cash Flows, and other Topics. This standard addresses the following eight specific cash flow issues: Debt prepayment or debt extinguishment costs; settlement of zero-coupon debt instruments or other debt instruments with coupon interest rates that are insignificant in relation to the effective interest rate of the borrowing; contingent consideration payments made after a business combination; proceeds from the settlement of insurance claims; proceeds from the settlement of corporate-owned life insurance policies (COLIs) (including bank-owned life insurance policies (BOLIs)); distributions received from equity method investees; beneficial interests in securitization transactions; and separately identifiable cash flows and application of the predominance principle. The amendments in this update apply to all entities, including both business entities and not-for-profit entities that are required to present a statement of cash flows under Topic 230. This ASU was effective for Laureate beginning January 1, 2018. We have evaluated the potential impact of this update and do not expect that it will have a material effect on our Consolidated Financial Statements. ASU No. 2016-02 (ASU 2016-02), Leases (Topic 842) On February 25, 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-02. Lessees will need to recognize on their balance sheet a right-of-use asset and a lease liability for virtually all of their leases (other than leases that meet the definition of a short-term lease). The liability will be equal to the present value of lease payments. The asset will be based on the liability, subject to adjustment, such as for initial direct costs and uneven rent payments. For income statement purposes, the FASB retained a dual model, requiring leases to be classified as either operating or finance. Operating leases will result in straight-line expense (similar to current operating leases) while finance leases will result in a front-loaded expense pattern (similar to current capital leases). Classification will be based on criteria that are largely similar to those applied in current lease accounting, but without explicit bright lines. The standard is effective for Laureate beginning January 1, 2019. The new standard must be adopted using a modified retrospective transition and provides for certain practical expedients. Transition will require application of the new guidance at the beginning of the earliest comparative period presented. We have completed our diagnostic assessment and have established a cross-functional implementation team which is in the process of identifying changes to our accounting policies, business processes, systems and internal controls in preparation for the implementation. We anticipate that ASU 2016-02 will have a material impact on our Consolidated Balance Sheets, as we will record significant asset and liability balances in connection with our leased properties. We are still evaluating the impact to our Consolidated Statements of Operations. We do not currently plan to early adopt this ASU. ASU No. 2014-09, (ASU 2014-09), Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606) On May 28, 2014, the FASB issued ASU 2014-09, which supersedes the revenue recognition requirements in ASC 605, ‘‘Revenue Recognition’’ and most industry-specific guidance. The core principle of ASU 2014-09 is that a company will recognize revenue when it transfers promised goods or services to customers in an amount that reflects the consideration to which the company expects to be entitled in exchange for those goods or services. The new revenue standard is effective for fiscal years, and interim periods within those years, beginning after December 15, 2017 (January 1, 2018 for Laureate) and allows either a full retrospective adoption to all periods presented or a modified retrospective adoption approach with the cumulative effect of initial application of the revised guidance recognized at the date of initial application. We have completed our diagnostic assessment and our policies and processes relating to this ASU, which we adopted effective January 1, 2018. We do not expect the adoption of this ASU to result in a significant change to our method of recognizing tuition revenues. We adopted the new standard using the modified retrospective method, and the cumulative effect of adoption to retained earnings on January 1, 2018 was approximately $2,000. Recently Adopted Accounting Standards ASU No. 2015-17 (ASU 2015-17), Income Taxes (Topic 740) In November 2015, the FASB issued ASU 2015-17 as a part of the Simplification Initiative and in response to concerns that the current requirement that entities separate deferred income tax liabilities and assets into current and noncurrent amounts results in little or no benefit to users of the financial statements. The amendments in this ASU aim to simplify this presentation by requiring that deferred tax liabilities and assets be classified as noncurrent in a classified statement of financial position. ASU 2015-17 was effective for Laureate beginning January 1, 2017 and we adopted this guidance on a retrospective basis. Accordingly, as of December 31, 2017 all deferred tax assets and liabilities are classified as noncurrent and we reclassified current deferred tax assets and liabilities of approximately $101,500 and $5,300, respectively, as of December 31, 2016 to noncurrent. ASU No. 2016-09 (ASU 2016-09), Compensation—Stock compensation (Topic 718): Improvements to Employee Share-based Payment Accounting On March 30, 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-09 as part of its initiative to reduce complexity in accounting standards. The areas for simplification in this ASU involve several aspects of the accounting for employee share-based payment transactions, including the income tax consequences, classification of awards as either equity or liabilities, and classification on the statement of cash flows. The guidance was effective for Laureate beginning January 1, 2017. Laureate has elected to continue estimating forfeitures when determining the amount of share-based compensation expense to be recognized each period. The Company adopted this standard prospectively in the first quarter of 2017 and it did not have a material impact on our Consolidated Financial Statements.
Business and Geographic Segment Information | Laureate’s educational services are offered through six operating segments: Brazil, Mexico, Andean, Central America & U.S. Campuses, Rest of World and Online & Partnerships. Laureate determines its operating segments based on information utilized by the chief operating decision maker to allocate resources and assess performance. As previously disclosed in our Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the period ended September 30, 2017, effective August 1, 2017, we changed our operating segments in order to realign our segments according to how our chief operating decision maker allocates resources and assesses performance. The change includes the creation of three operating segments (Brazil, Mexico and Andean & Iberian) from the previous Latin America (LatAm) segment. Our institutions in Spain and Portugal (Iberian) have moved from the Europe, Middle East, Africa and Asia Pacific (EMEAA) segment and combined with our institutions in Chile and Peru to form the Andean & Iberian segment. In addition, our institutions in Central America, which were previously part of the LatAm segment, have combined with our campus-based institutions in the United States, which were previously part of the GPS segment, to form the Central America & U.S. Campuses segment. The Online & Partnerships segment consists of the online institutions that were previously part of the GPS segment. This change has been reflected in the segment information for the year ended December 31, 2017. As required, the segment information presented for comparative purposes for the years ended December 31, 2016 and 2015 has also been revised to reflect this change. We have renamed our Andean & Iberian segment as Andean and our EMEAA segment as Rest of World. As discussed in Note 3, Discontinued Operations, during the quarter ended September 30, 2018, a number of our subsidiaries met the requirements to be classified as discontinued operations, including the entire Central America & U.S. Campuses segment. As a result, the operations of the Central America & U.S. Campuses segment have been excluded from the segment information for all periods presented. In addition, the portions of the Andean and Rest of World reportable segments that are included in Discontinued Operations have also been excluded from the segment information for all periods presented. Our campus-based segments generate revenues by providing an education that emphasizes professional-oriented fields of study with undergraduate and graduate degrees in a wide range of disciplines. Our educational offerings are increasingly utilizing online and hybrid (a combination of online and in-classroom) courses and programs to deliver their curriculum. Many of our largest campus-based operations are in developing markets which are experiencing a growing demand for higher education based on favorable demographics and increasing secondary completion rates, driving increases in participation rates and resulting in continued growth in the number of higher education students. Traditional higher education students (defined as 18-24 year olds) have historically been served by public universities, which have limited capacity and are often underfunded, resulting in an inability to meet the growing student demand and employer requirements. This supply and demand imbalance has created a market opportunity for private sector participants. Most students finance their own education. However, there are some government-sponsored student financing programs which are discussed below. These campus-based segments include Brazil, Mexico, Andean, Central America & U.S. Campuses and Rest of World. Specifics related to each of these campus-based segments and our Online & Partnerships segment are discussed below: In Brazil, approximately 75% of post-secondary students are enrolled in private higher education institutions. While the federal government defines the national curricular guidelines, institutions are licensed to operate by city. Laureate owns 13 institutions in eight states throughout Brazil, with a particularly strong presence in the competitive São Paulo market. Many students finance their own education while others rely on the government-sponsored programs such as Prouni and FIES. Public universities in Mexico enroll approximately two-thirds of students attending post-secondary education. However, many public institutions are faced with capacity constraints or the quality of the education is considered low. Laureate owns two institutions and is present throughout the country with a footprint of over 40 campuses. Each institution in Mexico has a national license. Students in our Mexican institutions typically finance their own education. The Andean segment includes institutions in Chile, Peru, Portugal and Spain. In Chile, private universities enroll approximately 80% of post-secondary students. In Peru, the public sector plays a significant role but private universities are increasingly providing the capacity to meet growing demand. In Spain and Portugal, the high demand for post-secondary education places capacity constraints on the public sector, pushing students to turn to the private sector for high-quality education. Chile has government-sponsored student financing programs, while in the other countries students generally finance their own education. The institutions in Portugal and Spain are included in Discontinued Operations. The Central America & U.S. Campuses segment includes institutions in Costa Rica, Honduras, Panama and the United States. Students in Central America typically finance their own education while students in the United States finance their education in a variety of ways, including Title IV programs. The entire Central America & U.S. Campuses segment is included in Discontinued Operations. The Rest of World segment includes institutions in the European countries of Cyprus, Germany, Italy and Turkey, as well as locations in the Middle East, Africa and Asia Pacific consisting of campus-based institutions with operations in Australia, China, India, Malaysia, Morocco, New Zealand, South Africa and Thailand. Additionally, Rest of World manages eight licensed institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and manages one additional institution in China through a joint venture arrangement. The institutions in the Rest of World segment are included in Discontinued Operations, except for Australia, New Zealand and the managed institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and China. The Online & Partnerships segment includes fully online institutions operating globally that offer professionally-oriented degree programs in the United States through Walden University (Walden), a U.S.-based accredited institution, and through the University of Liverpool and the University of Roehampton in the United Kingdom. These online institutions primarily serve working adults with undergraduate and graduate degree program offerings. Students in the United States finance their education in a variety of ways, including Title IV programs. Intersegment transactions are accounted for in a similar manner as third-party transactions and are eliminated in consolidation. The “Corporate” amounts presented in the following tables includes corporate charges that were not allocated to our reportable segments and adjustments to eliminate intersegment items. We evaluate segment performance based on Adjusted EBITDA, which is a non-GAAP performance measure defined as Income (loss) from continuing operations before income taxes and equity in net income of affiliates, adding back the following items: (Loss) gain on sales of subsidiaries, net, Foreign currency exchange gain (loss), net, Other (expense) income, net, Gain (loss) on derivatives, Loss on debt extinguishment, Interest expense, Interest income, Depreciation and amortization expense, Loss on impairment of assets, Share-based compensation expense and expenses related to our Excellence-in-Process (EiP) initiative. EiP is an enterprise-wide initiative to optimize and standardize Laureate’s processes, creating vertical integration of procurement, information technology, finance, accounting and human resources. It includes the establishment of regional shared services organizations (SSOs) around the world, as well as improvements to the Company's system of internal controls over financial reporting. We have also expanded the EiP initiative into other back- and mid-office areas, as well as certain student-facing activities. Certain non-recurring costs incurred in connection with the planned dispositions described in Note 3, Discontinued Operations, are also included in EiP. The increased EiP expenses during the year ended December 31, 2017 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2016 relates primarily to severance costs that are predominantly contractual termination benefits recognized in accordance with ASC 712, ‘‘Compensation—Nonretirement Postemployment Benefits.’’ When we review Adjusted EBITDA on a segment basis, we exclude intercompany revenues and expenses, related to network fees and royalties between our segments, which eliminate in consolidation. We use total assets as the measure of assets for reportable segments.
Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets | We perform annual impairment tests of our non-amortizable intangible assets, which consist of Goodwill and Tradenames, in the fourth quarter of each year. The impairment charges discussed below were recorded to reduce the assets' carrying values to fair value. For the purposes of our annual impairment testing of the Company's goodwill, fair value measurements were determined primarily using the income approach, based largely on inputs that are not observable to active markets, which would be deemed “Level 3” fair value measurements as defined in Note 21, Fair Value Measurement. These inputs include our expectations about future revenue growth and profitability, marginal income tax rates by jurisdiction, and the rate at which the cash flows should be discounted in order to determine this fair value estimate. Where a market approach is used, the inputs also include publicly available data about our competitors' financial ratios and transactions. For purposes of our annual impairment testing of the Company’s indefinite-lived tradename assets, fair value measurements were determined using the income approach, based largely on inputs that are not observable to active markets, which would be deemed “Level 3” fair value measurements as defined in Note 21, Fair Value Measurement. These inputs include our expectations about future revenue growth and profitability, marginal income tax rates by jurisdiction, and the rate at which the cash flows should be discounted in order to determine the fair value estimate for indefinite-lived tradenames using a relief-from-royalty method. We use publicly available information and proprietary third-party arm’s length agreements that Laureate has entered into with various licensors in determining certain assumptions to assist us in estimating fair value using market participant assumptions.
Leases | Laureate conducts a significant portion of its operations from leased facilities. These facilities include our corporate headquarters, other office locations, and many of Laureate’s higher education facilities. The terms of these operating leases vary and generally contain renewal options. Some of the operating leases provide for increasing rents over the terms of the leases. Laureate also leases certain equipment under noncancellable operating leases, which are typically for terms of 60 months or less. Total rent expense under these leases is recognized ratably over the initial term of each lease. Any difference between the rent payment and the straight-line expense is recorded as an adjustment to the liability or as a prepaid asset. Laureate has entered into sublease agreements for certain leased office space. These agreements allow us to annually adjust rental income to be received for increases in gross operating rent and related expenses.
Financing Receivables | Laureate’s financing receivables consist primarily of trade receivables related to student tuition financing programs with an initial term in excess of one year. We have offered long-term financing through the execution of note receivable agreements with students at some of our institutions. Our disclosures include financing receivables that are classified in our Consolidated Balance Sheets as both current and long-term, reported in accordance with ASC 310, “Receivables.”
Financing Receivable, Allowance for Credit Losses | Delinquency is the primary indicator of credit quality for our financing receivables. Receivable balances are considered delinquent when contractual payments on the loan become past due. Delinquent financing receivables are placed on non-accrual status for interest income. The accrual of interest is resumed when the financing receivable becomes contractually current and when collection of all remaining amounts due is reasonably assured. We record an Allowance for doubtful accounts to reduce our financing receivables to their net realizable value. The Allowance for doubtful accounts is based on the age of the receivables, the status of past-due amounts, historical collection trends, current economic conditions, and student enrollment status. Each of our institutions evaluates its balances for potential impairment. We consider impaired loans to be those that are past due one year or greater, and those that are modified as a troubled debt restructuring (TDR).
Earnings (Loss) Per Share | Laureate computes basic earnings per share (EPS) by dividing income available to common shareholders by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding for the reporting period. Diluted EPS reflects the potential dilution that would occur if share-based compensation awards, contingently issuable shares, and convertible securities were exercised or converted into common stock. To calculate the diluted EPS, the basic weighted average number of shares is increased by the dilutive effect of stock options, restricted stock, restricted stock units, and other share-based compensation arrangements determined using the treasury stock method.
Non-United States Pension Benefit Plans | Laureate has defined benefit (pension) plans at several non-United States institutions. The projected benefit obligation (PBO) is determined as the actuarial present value as of the measurement date of all benefits calculated by the pension benefit formula for employee service rendered. The amount of benefits to be paid depends on a number of future events incorporated into the pension benefit formula, including estimates of the average life expectancy of employees/survivors and average years of service rendered. The PBO is measured based on assumptions concerning future interest rates and future employee compensation levels. The expected net periodic benefit cost for Laureate in each year can vary from the subsequent year's actual net periodic benefit cost due to the acquisition of entities with plans, plan amendments, and the impacts of foreign currency translation. The combined unfunded status of these plans is reported as a component of Other current liabilities and Other long-term liabilities.

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