12. Income Taxes

Income before income taxes by geographic area was, for the years ended December 31:


(in thousands)	2019		2018		2017
Federal	$	46,445	$	48,393	$	33,830
Foreign		3,997		(5,325)		(9,190)
	$	50,442	$	43,068	$	24,640

Income tax expense consisted of the following for the years ended December 31:


(in thousands)	2019		2018		2017
Current
Federal	$	6,976	$	5,155	$	7,020
State		3,562		3,310		1,557
		10,538		8,465		8,577
Deferred
Federal		3,010		4,936		(1,453)
Foreign		874		(822)		(875)
State		(194)		(805)		(2,763)
		3,690		3,309		(5,091)
Income tax expense	$	14,228	$	11,774	$	3,486

The differences between the U.S. federal statutory tax rate and the Company’s effective tax rate for operations were as follows for the years ended December 31:


	2019		2018		2017
U.S federal statutory rate	21.0	%	21.0	%	35.0	%
Deferred balance adjustments due to Tax Act, net	—		—		(31.6)
State income taxes, net of U.S. federal income tax expense	4.7		5.2		5.3
Change in valuation allowance	(0.3)		1.2		6.4
Domestic production/manufacturing deduction	—		—		(1.6)
Tax differential on foreign earnings	0.4		(0.5)		3.2
Deferred state tax adjustments, net	—		—		(2.4)
Non-deductible meals and entertainment	0.8		0.8		1.7
Stock compensation excess tax benefits	0.1		(0.1)		(3.1)
Uncertain tax positions	(0.4)		0.1		2.0
Provision to return adjustments, net	0.2		(0.2)		(0.3)
Global intangible low tax income	0.3		—		—
Non-controlling interest	0.9		(0.5)		—
Other income, net	0.5		0.3		(0.5)
Effective rate	28.2	%	27.3	%	14.1	%

The net deferred tax assets and (liabilities) arising from temporary differences was as follows at December 31:


(in thousands)	2019		2018
Deferred income tax assets:
Self insurance reserves	$	4,458	$	4,299
Contract loss reserves		642		350
Stock-based awards		1,164		1,143
Bonus		4,904		3,271
Operating lease liabilities		5,850		—
Non-U.S. operating loss		5,499		5,641
Other		3,439		1,958
Total deferred income tax assets before valuation allowances		25,956		16,662
Less: valuation allowances		(2,508)		(2,672)
Total deferred income tax assets		23,448		13,990
Deferred income tax liabilities:
Property and equipment – tax over book depreciation		(32,220)		(26,030)
Intangible assets – tax over book amortization		(1,856)		(1,890)
Right-of-use operating lease assets		(5,850)		—
Non-U.S. deferred income tax liabilities		(2,280)		(1,443)
Other		(2,187)		(2,025)
Total deferred income tax liabilities		(44,393)		(31,388)
Net deferred income taxes	$	(20,945)	$	(17,398)

The Company determined that it is more-likely-than-not that it will not realize the deferred tax assets on certain Canadian subsidiaries and recorded a valuation allowance against the entire related deferred tax assets for those entities.

As of December 31, 2019, the Company had no undistributed earnings of our Canadian subsidiaries. We expect future earnings to be reinvested. Accordingly, as of December 31, 2019 no expense for U.S. income taxes or foreign withholding taxes was recorded.

The Company is subject to taxation in various jurisdictions. The Company’s 2017 and 2018 tax returns are subject to examination by U. S. federal authorities. The Company’s tax returns are subject to examination by various state authorities for the years 2015 through 2018.

The Company has recorded a liability for unrecognized tax benefits related to tax positions taken on its various income tax returns. If recognized, the entire amount of unrecognized tax benefits would favorably impact the effective tax rate that is reported in future periods. The decrease in the unrecognized tax benefits as of December 31, 2019 was primarily due to the settlement of an Internal Revenue Service audit for the 2016 tax year and the lapses in the applicable status of limitations. The total unrecognized tax benefits is expected to be reduced by less than $0.1 million within the next 12 months. Interest and penalties related to uncertain income tax positions are included as a component of income tax expense in the Financial Statements.

The following is a reconciliation of the beginning and ending liability for unrecognized tax benefits at December 31:


(in thousands)	2019		2018
Balance at beginning of period	$	327	$	751
Gross increases in current period tax positions		31		25
Settlements with taxing authorities		(88)		—
Reductions in tax positions due to lapse of statutory limitations		(118)		(8)
Reclass from unrecognized tax benefits to deferred tax liability		—		(441)
Balance at end of period		152		327
Accrued interest and penalties at end of period		24		48
Total liability for unrecognized tax benefits	$	176	$	375

The liability for unrecognized tax benefits, including accrued interest and penalties, was included in other liabilities on the accompanying consolidated balance sheets. The amount of interest and penalties charged or credited to income tax expense as a result of the unrecognized tax benefits was not significant in the years ended December 31, 2019, 2018 and 2017.