Ashland’s revenue is measured as the amount of consideration it expects to receive in exchange for transferring goods or providing services and is recognized when performance obligations are satisfied under the terms of contracts with customers. Ashland generally utilizes standardized language for the terms of contracts, unless a separate agreement has been entered into with a customer that supersedes the standard language.

A performance obligation is deemed to be satisfied by Ashland when control of the product or service is transferred to the customer. The transaction price of a contract, or the amount Ashland expects to receive upon satisfaction of all performance obligations, is determined by reference to the contract’s terms and includes adjustments, if applicable, for any variable consideration, such as volume discounts, rebates, refunds and right to return. Where a contract contains more than one distinct performance obligation, the transaction price is allocated to each performance obligation based on the standalone selling price of each performance obligation, although these situations do not occur frequently and are generally not included within Ashland’s contracts. Any unsatisfied performance obligations are not material. Standalone selling prices are based on prices Ashland charges to customers, which in some cases is based on established market prices. Ashland generally collects the cash from its customers within 60 days of the product delivery date. Sales and other similar taxes collected from customers on behalf of third parties are excluded from the contract price.

All of Ashland’s revenue is derived from contracts with customers, and nearly all contracts with customers contain one performance obligation for the transfer of goods where such performance obligation is satisfied at a point in time. Control of a product is deemed to be transferred to the customer generally upon shipment or delivery. Costs for shipping and handling activities, whether performed before or after the customer obtains control of the goods, are accounted for as fulfillment costs when not reimbursed.

Costs incurred to obtain contracts with customers have historically not been significant and are expensed immediately as the amortization period is generally one year or less. Ashland records bad debt expense in specific situations when it is determined that the customer is unable to meet its financial obligation.

Trade receivables are defined as receivables arising from contracts with customers and are recorded within the accounts receivable caption within the Condensed Consolidated Balance Sheets. Ashland’s trade receivables were $409 million and $435 million as of December 31, 2019 and September 30, 2019, respectively.

Ashland disaggregates its revenue from contracts with customers by segment, geographical region and product category, as Ashland believes these categories best depict how management reviews the financial performance of its operations. See the following tables for details:

Sales by geography for the three months ended December 31
(In millions)	Specialty Ingredients				Intermediates and Solvents
Geography	2019			2018	2019		2018
North America	$	198	$	219	$	15	$	11
Europe		161		170		5		5
Asia Pacific		103		116		7		6
Latin America & other		43		48		1		1
	$	505	$	553	$	28	$	23

Sales by product category for the three months ended December 31
(In millions)	2019		2018
Specialty Ingredients
Cellulosics	$	178	$	189
Poly-vinyl pyrrolidones		93		95
Adhesives		74		82
Actives		37		37
Vinyl ethers		20		24
Pharmachem		40		59
Other (a)		63		67
	$	505	$	553

Intermediates and Solvents
Derivatives	$	23	$	20
Butanediol		5		3
	$	28	$	23