16. Income Taxes

On December 22, 2017, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the “2017 Act”) was signed into law, making a broad range of tax reform legislation affecting businesses, including, reducing the corporate tax rate from 35% to 21% for tax years beginning after December 31, 2017. The company recognized the income tax effects of the 2017 Act in accordance with Staff Accounting Bulletin No. 118 and revalued its federal deferred tax assets based upon the new 21% rate which resulted in an $11.4 million provisional charge recorded to income tax expense during the year ended December 31, 2017. As of December 31, 2018, the Company has now completed the accounting for all of the enactment-date income tax effects of the 2017 Act. During 2018, the Company recognized a tax benefit of $1.2 million related to adjustments to the provisional amount recorded as of December 31, 2017.

The 2017 Act also allows for immediate full expensing for property placed in service after September 27, 2017 and before January 1, 2023. The Company made the election to accelerate these deductions for the year ended December 31, 2017 tax returns. In addition, the 2017 Act places limitations on the deductibility of certain executive compensation awards in the future.

The income tax provision (benefit) for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018 is summarized below (in thousands):


	2016		2017		2018
Current:
Federal	$	26,015	$	21,156	$	9,069
State		4,869		4,477		3,785
Total current		30,884		25,633		12,854
Deferred:
Change in federal tax rate due to the 2017 Act		—		11,375		—
Federal		(7,748)		(3,193)		(13,381)
State		(646)		(1,781)		(2,941)
Total deferred		(8,394)		6,401		(16,322)
Total provision (benefit) for income taxes	$	22,490	$	32,034	$	(3,468)

The tax effects of the principal temporary differences that give rise to the Company’s net deferred tax asset (liability) are as follows as of December 31, 2017 and 2018 (in thousands):


	2017		2018
Stock-based compensation	$	15,024	$	19,834
Allowance for doubtful accounts		3,250		7,943
Contract liabilities		5,445		6,107
Capital loss carryforward		—		4,174
Other		1,217		3,650
Other facility-related costs		2,622		2,080
Deferred leasing costs		1,789		1,673
Intangible assets		(1,196)		(82,022)
Property and equipment		(3,326)		(18,441)
Valuation allowance		—		(4,356)
Prepaid compensation		(373)		—
Net deferred tax asset (liability)	$	24,452	$	(59,358)

The valuation allowance for deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2017 and 2018 was $0 and $4.4 million, respectively. The increase in the valuation allowance was primarily related to capital loss carryforwards acquired in the merger with CEC. The Company concluded that it was more likely than not that the deferred tax asset for the capital loss carryforward would not be realized due to a lack of history of recognizing capital gains.

As of December 31, 2017 and 2018, the Company’s liabilities for unrecognized tax benefits are included in other long-term liabilities in the consolidated balance sheets. Interest and penalties, including those related to uncertain tax positions, are included in the provision for income taxes in the consolidated statements of income. The Company recognized $0.2 million and $12,000 of expense related to interest and penalties in 2017 and 2018, respectively. The total amount of interest and penalties included in the consolidated balance sheets was $0 and $36,000 as of December 31, 2017 and 2018, respectively.

The following table summarizes changes in unrecognized tax benefits, excluding interest and penalties, for the respective periods (in thousands):


	Year Ended December 31,
	2017		2018
Beginning unrecognized tax benefits	$	176	$	—
Additions from merger		—		687
Reductions for tax positions taken in prior years		(176)		(63)
Ending unrecognized tax benefits	$	—	$	624

The Company does not anticipate significant changes to unrecognized tax benefits within the next 12 months. As of December 31, 2018, $0.6 million of the Company’s total unrecognized tax benefits would favorably affect the Company’s effective tax rate, if recognized.

A reconciliation between the Company’s statutory tax rate and the effective tax rate for the years ended December 31, 2016, 2017, and 2018 is as follows:


	2016		2017		2018
Statutory federal rate	35.0	%	35.0	%	21.0	%
State income taxes, net of federal benefits	4.5		4.2		(1.4)
Adjustment to deferred tax assets as a result of the 2017 Act	—		21.8		—
Transaction costs	—		5.2		(6.2)
Adjustments to contingent consideration	(0.3)		(5.0)		—
Excess tax benefit on share-based compensation	—		—		15.5
Impairment of intangible assets	—		—		(15.3)
Acceleration of deductions due to change in tax law	—		—		6.4
Other	0.1		(0.4)		(1.9)
Effective tax rate	39.3	%	60.8	%	18.1	%

Cash payments for income taxes were $31.6 million, $26.2 million, and $13.4 million in 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively.