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Income tax - Reconciliations of income tax expenses (Details) - CNY (¥) ¥ in Thousands | 12 Months Ended
--- | ---
Dec. 31, 2023 | Dec. 31, 2022 | Dec. 31, 2021
Income tax |  |  |
Loss before income tax | ¥ (304,705) | ¥ (731,592) | ¥ (1,093,912)
Income tax benefit at PRC statutory tax rate | (76,176) | (182,898) | (273,478)
Effect of different tax rate of different jurisdictions | (1,930) | 1,428 | (135)
Effect of preferential tax rates | 3,427 | 3,983 | 4,460
Effect of Super Deduction for research and development expenses | (2,285) | (2,010) | (2,622)
Non-deductible expenses and non-taxable income | 28,385 | 29,314 | 54,862
Change in valuation allowance | 48,774 | 149,712 | 217,113
Total income tax expense/ (benefits) | ¥ 195 | ¥ (471) | ¥ 200

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