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Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies) | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2019
Accounting Policies [Abstract] |
Basis of Presentation | Basis of Presentation Principles of Consolidation Forrester Research, Inc. is a global independent research, data, and advisory services firm. Forrester works with business and technology leaders to drive customer-obsessed vision, strategy, and execution that accelerate growth. Forrester’s unique insights are grounded in annual surveys of more than 690,000 consumers and business leaders worldwide, rigorous and objective research methodologies, and the shared wisdom of our clients. Through proprietary research, data and analytics, custom consulting, exclusive executive peer groups, certifications, and events, Forrester is revolutionizing how businesses grow in an era of powerful customers. The accompanying consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Forrester and its wholly-owned subsidiaries. All intercompany transactions and balances have been eliminated in consolidation. Business Acquisitions Forrester accounts for business combinations in accordance with the acquisition method of accounting as prescribed by Accounts Standards Codification (“ASC”) Topic 805, Business Combinations. The acquisition method of accounting requires the Company to record the assets and liabilities acquired based on their estimated fair values as of the acquisition date, with any excess of the consideration transferred over the estimated fair value of the net assets acquired, including identifiable intangible assets, to be recorded to goodwill. In 2019, Forrester acquired SiriusDecisions, Inc. In 2018, Forrester acquired S.NOW SA (which operates as “FeedbackNow”) and SocialGlimpz, Inc. (which operates as “GlimpzIt”). Refer to Note 2 – Acquisitions for further information on these acquisitions. Management Estimates The preparation of financial statements in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States of America (“GAAP”) requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Forrester considers the more significant of these estimates to be revenue recognition, leases, valuation of goodwill, intangible assets and acquired assets and liabilities from business combinations, ongoing impairment reviews of goodwill and intangible assets, and income taxes. On an ongoing basis, management evaluates its estimates. Actual results could differ from these estimates.
Adoption of New Accounting Pronouncements | Adoption of New Accounting Pronouncements In February 2016, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) No. 2016-02, Leases (Topic 842). The standard requires lessees to recognize the assets and liabilities from leases on the balance sheet and disclose qualitative and quantitative information about the lease arrangements. Lessor accounting is largely unchanged. Leases are classified as either financing or operating, with classification affecting the pattern of expense recognition in the income statement. In July 2018, the FASB issued ASU 2018-11, Leases (Topic 842): Targeted Improvements, which allowed for an additional adoption method, and for lessors, provides a practical expedient for the separation of lease and non-lease components within a contract. On January 1, 2019, the Company adopted Topic 842 using the modified retrospective method in which prior periods are not adjusted. Under this method, the cumulative effect of applying the standard is recorded at the date of initial application. Adoption of the standard did not result in the Company recording a cumulative effect adjustment. Adoption of the standard resulted in the recognition of operating lease right-of-use (“ROU”) assets of $53.3 million, operating lease liabilities of $60.8 million and the elimination of deferred rent of $7.5 million on the adoption date. In addition, the Company recorded $10.4 million of operating lease ROU assets and operating lease liabilities on January 3, 2019 as a result of the acquisition of SiriusDecisions (see Note 2 – Acquisitions). Adoption of the standard did not have a material impact on the Company’s results of operations or cash flows. The Company elected the package of practical expedients permitted under Topic 842 that allows the carry forward of the historical lease classification for all leases that existed as of the adoption date. In addition, the Company elected to exempt short term leases from recognition of ROU assets and lease liabilities and elected not to separate lease and non-lease components within its leases. Under prior GAAP, as of December 31, 2018, the Company’s future contractual obligations for operating leases were as follows (in thousands):
2019 | $ | 12,498 |
2020 |  | 11,762 |
2021 |  | 10,145 |
2022 |  | 8,552 |
2023 |  | 7,856 |
Thereafter |  | 22,222 |
Total minimum lease payments | $ | 73,035 |
The Company adopted the guidance in ASU No. 2016-15, Statement of Cash Flows: Classification of Certain Cash Receipts and Cash Payments, on January 1, 2018. The new standard clarifies certain aspects of the statement of cash flows, including contingent consideration payments made after a business combination, proceeds from the settlement of insurance claims, and distributions received from equity method investees, among others. The adoption of this standard did not have a material impact on the Company’s statements of cash flows. The Company adopted the guidance in ASU No. 2016-18, Statement of Cash Flows: Restricted Cash, on January 1, 2018. The new standard requires restricted cash to be included with cash and cash equivalents when reconciling the beginning and ending amounts on the statement of cash flows. The adoption of this standard did not have an impact on the Company’s statements of cash flows. The Company adopted the guidance in ASU No. 2017-01, Business Combinations (Topic 805) – Clarifying the Definition of a Business on January 1, 2018. The new standard amended the prior business combinations guidance by clarifying the definition of a business to assist entities with evaluating whether transactions should be accounted for as acquisitions or disposals of assets or businesses. The adoption of the standard did not have an impact on the Company's financial position or statement of operations. The Company elected to adopt the guidance in ASU No. 2018-02, Reclassification of Certain Tax Effects from Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income, on January 1, 2018. The new standard allows, but does not require, a reclassification from accumulated other comprehensive income to retained earnings for stranded tax effects resulting from the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 (the “Act”) enacted on December 22, 2017. The Company elected to make the reclassification adjustment as of the beginning of the period of adoption in the amount of $26 thousand using the aggregate portfolio approach. The reclassification amount includes the effect of the change in the U.S. federal corporate income tax rate on the gross deferred tax amounts at the date of enactment of the Act related to items remaining in accumulated other comprehensive loss. In May 2014, the FASB issued ASU No. 2014-09, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606). Topic 606 supersedes all existing revenue recognition requirements, including most industry-specific guidance. The new standard requires a company to recognize revenue when it transfers products or services to customers, in an amount that reflects the consideration that the company expects to receive for those products or services. Topic 606 also includes subtopic ASC 340-40, Other Assets and Deferred Costs-Contracts with Customers, which provides guidance on accounting for certain revenue related costs including costs associated with obtaining and fulfilling a contract. On January 1, 2018, the Company adopted Topic 606 using the modified retrospective method. Under this method, the reported results for 2018 reflect the application of Topic 606, while the reported results for 2017 were prepared under the guidance of ASU No. 2009-13, Revenue Recognition (Topic 605), which is referred to herein as the “previous guidance”. The modified retrospective method requires the cumulative effect of applying the new guidance to all contracts with customers that were not completed as of January 1, 2018 to be recorded as an adjustment to retained earnings as of the adoption date. Forrester considered a contract to be complete if all the revenue was recognized in accordance with the previous guidance that was in effect before the adoption date. The effect of adopting Topic 606 included a $7.8 million reduction in deferred revenue, primarily related to prepaid performance obligations expected to expire in 2018 and 2019 that would have been recognized in 2017 under the new guidance; a decrease of $5.5 million in prepaid expenses and other current assets related to deferred survey costs that would have been expensed as incurred in 2017 under the new guidance and the current tax impact of the cumulative effect; an increase of $0.9 million in deferred commissions related to the capitalization of fringe benefits as incremental costs to obtain customer contracts under the new guidance; and an increase of $0.6 million in other assets for the deferred tax effect of the cumulative effect. Retained earnings increased by $3.8 million as a net result of these adjustments.
Fair Value Measurements | Fair Value Measurements The carrying amounts reflected in the Consolidated Balance Sheets for cash, cash equivalents, accounts receivable, accounts payable, and accrued expenses approximate fair value due to their short-term maturities. The Company’s financial instruments also include its outstanding variable-rate borrowings (refer to Note 4 – Debt). The Company believes that the carrying amount of its variable-rate borrowings reasonably approximate their fair values because the rates of interest on those borrowings reflect current market rates of interest. Additionally, the Company has certain financial assets and liabilities recorded at fair value at each balance sheet date in accordance with the accounting standards for fair value measurements. Refer to Note 6 – Fair Value Measurements for the Company’s fair value disclosures.
Cash, Cash Equivalents, and Marketable Investments | Cash, Cash Equivalents, and Marketable Investments Forrester considers all short-term, highly liquid investments with original maturities at the time of purchase of 90 days or less to be cash equivalents. The Company liquidated its entire portfolio of marketable investments in December of 2018 to fund the acquisition of SiriusDecisions on January 3, 2019. Forrester previously accounted for all marketable investments as available-for-sale securities and as such, the marketable investments were carried at fair value with unrealized gains and losses (not related to credit losses) recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Realized gains and losses on securities were included in earnings and were determined using the specific identification method. The Company conducted periodic reviews to identify and evaluate each investment that had an unrealized loss, in accordance with the meaning of other-than-temporary impairment and its application to certain investments, as required under current accounting standards. An unrealized loss exists when the current fair value of an individual security is less than its amortized cost basis. Unrealized losses on available-for-sale securities that are determined to be temporary, and not related to credit loss, are recorded, net of tax, in accumulated other comprehensive loss. The determination of whether a loss is considered temporary is based in part on whether the Company intends to sell the security or whether the Company would more likely than not be required to sell the security before the expected recovery of the amortized cost basis. During the years ended December 31, 2018 and 2017, the Company did not record any other-than-temporary impairment losses on its available-for-sale securities. Realized losses on sales of the Company’s available-for-sale securities were $0.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2018 and were recorded in gains (losses) on investments, net. Realized gains or losses on sales of the Company’s available-for-sale securities were not significant for the year ended December 31, 2017.
Presentation of Restricted Cash | Presentation of Restricted Cash The following table summarizes the end-of-period cash and cash equivalents from the Company's Consolidated Balance Sheets and the total cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash as presented in the accompanying Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows (in thousands).
| For the Year Ended December 31, |
| 2019 |  |  | 2018 |
Cash and cash equivalents | $ | 67,904 |  |  | $ | 140,296 |
Restricted cash classified in (1): |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Prepaid expenses and other current assets |  | 1,250 |  |  |  | — |
Other assets |  | 38 |  |  |  | — |
Cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash shown in statement of cash flows | $ | 69,192 |  |  | $ | 140,296 |
(1) | Restricted cash consists primarily of collateral required for letters of credit related to the Company’s office space leases. The short-term or long-term classification is determined in accordance with the expiration of the underlying lease as the letters of credit are non-cancellable while the leases are in effect.
Concentrations of Credit Risk | Concentrations of Credit Risk Forrester has no off-balance sheet or significant concentration of credit risk such as foreign exchange contracts, option contracts, or other foreign hedging arrangements. Financial instruments that potentially subject Forrester to concentrations of credit risk are principally cash, cash equivalents, and accounts receivable. No single customer accounted for greater than 4% of revenues or 4% of accounts receivable in any of the periods presented.
Goodwill | Goodwill Goodwill is not amortized; however, it is required to be tested for impairment annually. Furthermore, testing for impairment is required on an interim basis if an event or circumstance indicates that it is more likely than not an impairment loss has been incurred. An impairment loss would be recognized to the extent that the carrying amount of goodwill exceeds its implied fair value. Absent an event that indicates a specific impairment may exist, the Company has selected November 30th as the date for performing the annual goodwill impairment test. Goodwill impairment charges have not been required for the years ended December 31, 2019, 2018 and 2017.
Impairment of Other Long-Lived Tangible and Intangible Assets | Impairment of Other Long-Lived Tangible and Intangible Assets Forrester continually evaluates whether events or circumstances have occurred that indicate that the estimated remaining useful life of long-lived assets and intangible assets may warrant revision or if events or circumstances indicate that the carrying value of these assets may be impaired. To compute whether assets have been impaired, the estimated undiscounted future cash flows for the estimated remaining useful life of the assets are compared to the carrying value. To the extent that the future cash flows are less than the carrying value, the assets are written down to the estimated fair value of the asset. Impairment charges have not been required for the years ended December 31, 2019, 2018 and 2017.
Non-Current Liabilities | Non-Current Liabilities The Company records deferred tax liabilities and other liabilities that are expected to be settled over a period that exceeds one year as non-current liabilities. Prior to adopting Topic 842, the Company also recorded as a non-current liability the portion of the deferred rent liability expected to be recognized over a period greater than one year. Non-current deferred rent liability at December 31, 2018 was $6.6 million and resulted from the difference between cash payments and the straight-line recognition of rent expense under the Company’s facility leases. Adoption of Topic 842 eliminated the deferred rent liability.
Foreign Currency | Foreign Currency The functional currency of Forrester’s wholly-owned subsidiaries is their respective local currency. These subsidiary financial statements are translated to U.S. dollars using period-end exchange rates for assets and liabilities and average exchange rates during the corresponding period for revenues and expenses, with translation gains and losses accumulated as a component of accumulated other comprehensive loss in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Gains and losses related to the remeasurement of monetary assets and liabilities denominated in a currency other than an entity’s functional currency are included in other income (expense), net in the Consolidated Statements of Income (Loss). Forrester recorded $0.9 million of foreign exchange losses for the year ended December 31, 2019 and $0.6 million of foreign exchange losses for each of the years ended December 31, 2018 and 2017.
Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income (Loss) | Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income (Loss) The components of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) are as follows (in thousands):
|  | Net Unrealized Gain (Loss) on |  |  | Net Unrealized Gain (Loss) on |  |  | Cumulative |  |  | Total Accumulated Other |
|  | Marketable Investments |  |  | Interest Rate Swaps |  |  | Translation Adjustment |  |  | Comprehensive Income (Loss) |
Balance at December 31, 2016 |  | $ | (83 | ) |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | (7,490 | ) |  | $ | (7,573 | )
Foreign currency translation |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | 5,593 |  |  |  | 5,593 |
Unrealized loss on investments, net of tax of $22 |  |  | (32 | ) |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | (32 | )
Balance at December 31, 2017 |  |  | (115 | ) |  |  | — |  |  |  | (1,897 | ) |  |  | (2,012 | )
Foreign currency translation |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | (3,257 | ) |  |  | (3,257 | )
Reclassification of stranded tax effects from tax reform |  |  | (26 | ) |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | (26 | )
Unrealized gain on investments before reclassification, net of tax of $(4) |  |  | 12 |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | 12 |
Reclassification adjustment for net losses realized in net income, net of tax of $(75) |  |  | 129 |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | 129 |
Balance at December 31, 2018 |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | (5,154 | ) |  |  | (5,154 | )
Foreign currency translation |  |  | — |  |  |  | — |  |  |  | 401 |  |  |  | 401 |
Unrealized loss on interest rate swap, net of tax of $40 |  |  | — |  |  |  | (104 | ) |  |  | — |  |  |  | (104 | )
Balance at December 31, 2019 |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | (104 | ) |  | $ | (4,753 | ) |  | $ | (4,857 | )
Revenue | Revenue The Company recognizes revenue when a customer obtains control of promised products or services, in an amount that reflects the consideration expected to be received in exchange for those products or services. The Company follows the five-step model prescribed under Topic 606: (i) identify contract(s) with a customer; (ii) identify the performance obligation(s) in the contract; (iii) determine the transaction price; (iv) allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations in the contract; and (v) recognize revenue when (or as) the Company satisfies the performance obligation. Revenues are presented net of any sales or value added taxes collected from customers and remitted to the government. The Company accounts for a contract when it has approval and commitment from both parties, the fees, payment terms and rights of the parties regarding the products or services to be transferred are identified, the contract has commercial substance and collectability of the consideration expected to be transferred is probable. The Company applies judgment in determining the customer’s ability and intention to pay for services expected to be transferred, which is based on factors including the customer’s payment history, management’s ability to mitigate exposure to credit risk (for example, requiring payment in advance of the transfer of products or services, or the ability to stop transferring promised products or services in the event a customer fails to pay consideration when due) and experience selling to similarly situated customers. Since the transaction price is fixed and defined as part of entering into a contract, and generally does not change, variable consideration is insignificant. Performance obligations within a contract are identified based on the products and services promised to be transferred in the contract. When a contract includes more than one promised product or service, the Company must apply judgment to determine whether the promises represent multiple performance obligations or a single, combined performance obligation. This evaluation requires the Company to determine if the promises are both capable of being distinct, where the customer can benefit from the product or service on its own or together with other resources readily available, and are distinct within the context of the contract, where the transfer of products or services is separately identifiable from other promises in the contract. When both criteria are met, each promised product or service is accounted for as a separate performance obligation. In cases where the promises are distinct, the Company is further required to evaluate if the promises are a series of products and services that are substantially the same and have the same pattern of transfer to the customer (referred to as the “series” guidance). When the Company determines that promises meet the series guidance, they are accounted for as a single, combined performance obligation. The number of performance obligations in the Company’s arrangements is not different under Topic 606 than the number of separate units of accounting under pervious guidance, as discussed further below. Contracts that contain multiple performance obligations require an allocation of the transaction price to each performance obligation on a relative basis according to their standalone selling prices. The Company continues to determine standalone selling price based on the price at which the performance obligation is sold separately. If the Company does not have a history of selling a performance obligation, management applies judgment to estimate the standalone selling price, taking into consideration available information, including market conditions, factors considered to set list prices, pricing of similar products, and internal pricing objectives. The corresponding allocated revenues are recognized as the performance obligations are satisfied, as discussed further below. Research services revenues Research services revenues consist primarily of subscriptions to Research, Connect, and Analytics products. The majority of Research revenues are annual subscriptions to our research, including access to all or a designated portion of our research and, depending on the type of license, unlimited phone or email analyst inquiry and unlimited participation in Forrester webinars, all of which are delivered throughout the contract period. The Company has concluded that these promises represent a stand ready obligation to provide a daily information service, in which the services are the same each day, every day is distinct, and the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits as the Company transfers control throughout the contract period. Accordingly, these subscriptions meet the requirements of the series guidance and are each accounted for as a single performance obligation. The Company recognizes revenue ratably over time, using an output measure of time elapsed. Certain of the Research products include advisory services or an Event ticket, which are accounted for as a separate performance obligation and are recognized at the point in time the service is completed, the final deliverable is transferred to the customer or the Event occurs. Research revenues also include sales of electronic reprints, which are written research documents prepared by Forrester’s analysts and hosted via an on-line platform. Reprints include a promise to deliver a customer-selected research document and certain usage data provided through the on-line platform, which represents two performance obligations. The Company satisfies the performance obligation for the research document by providing access to the electronic reprint and accordingly recognizes revenue at that point in time. The Company satisfies the performance obligation for the data portion of the reprint on a daily basis and accordingly recognizes revenue over time. The majority of Connect revenues are the Company’s Leadership Board product which includes access to the Research offering, access to a private forum with other Leadership Board member peers, access to a Forrester advisor, member-generated content, and one Event ticket. The Company has concluded that all these promises, other than the Event ticket, represent a stand ready obligation to provide a daily information and peer service, in which the services are the same each day, every day is distinct, and the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits as the Company transfers control throughout the contract period. Accordingly, these promises meet the requirements of the series guidance and are accounted for as a single performance obligation. The Company recognizes revenue ratably over time, using an output measure of time elapsed. The Event ticket is accounted for as a separate performance obligation and is recognized when the Event occurs. Analytics revenues are primarily annual subscriptions to access designated survey data products and typically include an analytics client manager, all of which are delivered throughout the contract period. For Analytics subscriptions, the Company has concluded that these promises represent a stand ready obligation to provide a daily data service, in which the services are the same each day, every day is distinct, and the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits as the Company transfers control throughout the contract period. Accordingly, these subscriptions meet the requirements of the series guidance and are accounted for as a single performance obligation. The Company recognizes revenue ratably over time, using an output measure of time elapsed. Certain of the Analytics products include advisory services which are accounted for as a separate performance obligation and are recognized at the point in time the service is completed or the final deliverable is transferred to the customer. Advisory services and events revenues Advisory services and events revenues consists of sales of advisory services, consulting projects, and Events. Advisory services revenues are short-term presentations or knowledge sharing sessions (which can range from one hour to two days), such as workshops, speeches and advisory days. Each is a promise for a Forrester analyst to deliver a deeper understanding of Forrester’s published research and represents a single performance obligation. Revenue is recognized at the point in time the service is completed or the final deliverable is transferred to the customer. Consulting project revenues consist of the delivery of focused insights and recommendations that assist customers with their challenges in developing and executing strategies around technology, customer experience and digital transformation. Projects are fixed-fee arrangements that are generally completed within two weeks to three months. The Company has concluded that each project represents a single performance obligation as each is a single promise to deliver a customized engagement and deliverable. For the majority of these services, either practically or contractually, the work performed and delivered to the customer has no alternative use to the Company. Additionally, Forrester maintains an enforceable right to payment at all times throughout the contract. The Company utilizes an input method and recognizes revenue over time, based on hours expended relative to the total estimated hours required to satisfy the performance obligation. This input method was chosen since it closely aligns with how control of interim deliverables is transferred to the customer throughout the engagement and is also the method used internally to price the project and assess operational performance. If the Company were to enter into an agreement where it does not have an enforceable right to payment at all times, revenue would be recognized at the point in time the project is completed. Events revenues consist of either ticket or sponsorship sales for a Forrester-hosted event. Each is a single promise that either allows entry to, or grants the right to, promote a product or service at, a specific event. The Company concluded that each of these represents a single performance obligation. The Company recognizes revenue at the completion of the Event, which is the point in time when the customer has received the benefit(s) from attending or sponsoring the Event. Prepaid performance obligations, including Event tickets, reprints, advisory and consulting hours, on non-cancellable contracts that the Company estimates will expire unused are recognized in proportion to the pattern of related rights exercised by the customer. This assessment requires judgment, including estimating the percentage of prepaid rights that will go unexercised and anticipating the impact that future changes to products, pricing, and customer engagement will have on actual expirations. The Company periodically updates the rates used to recognize unexercised rights. Refer to Note 12 – Operating Segment and Enterprise Wide Reporting for a summary of disaggregated revenue by product category and business segment. Contract Modifications The Company considers a contract modification to exist when a mutually agreed upon change creates new, or updates existing, enforceable rights and obligations. Topic 606 introduced three specific methods to account for contract modifications depending on the nature of the change(s) in scope or price to the original contract. The new guidance is consistent with how the Company has historically accounted for contract modifications and as a result, does not have an impact on the Company’s results of operations. The majority of the Company’s contract modifications result in additional or remaining distinct products and services and are treated on a prospective basis. Under the prospective method, the transaction price is updated to combine the unrecognized amount as of the modification date plus the additional transaction price from the modification. This amount is then re-allocated to the remaining distinct performance obligations and recognized accordingly. Consulting services contracts can be modified to update the scope of the services purchased. Since a consulting project is a single performance obligation that is only partially satisfied at the modification date, the updated project requirements are not distinct and the modification is accounted for as part of the existing contract. The effect of the modification on the transaction price and the Company’s measure of progress for the performance obligation to which it relates is recognized as an adjustment to revenue (either an increase or decrease) on a cumulative catch-up basis. For the year ended December 31, 2019, the Company recorded an immaterial amount of cumulative catch-up adjustments.
Accounts Receivable | Accounts Receivable Accounts receivable includes amounts billed and currently due from customers. Since the only condition for payment of our invoices is the passage of time, the Company records a receivable on the date the invoice is issued. Also included in accounts receivable are unbilled amounts resulting from revenue exceeding the amount billed to the customer, where the right to payment is unconditional. If the right to payment for services performed was conditional on something other than the passage of time, the unbilled amount would be recorded as a separate contract asset. There were no contract assets as of December 31, 2019. The majority of the Company’s contracts are non-cancellable. However, for contracts that are cancellable by the customer, the Company does not record a receivable when it issues an invoice. The Company records accounts receivable on these contracts only up to the amount of revenue earned but not yet collected. In addition, since the majority of the Company’s contracts are for a duration of one year and payment is expected within one year from the transfer of products and services, the Company does not adjust its receivables or transaction price for the effects of a significant financing component.
Deferred Revenue | Deferred Revenue The Company refers to contract liabilities as deferred revenue on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Payment terms in the Company’s customer contracts vary, but generally require payment in advance of fully satisfying the performance obligation(s). Deferred revenue consists of billings in excess of revenue recognized. Similar to accounts receivable, the Company does not record deferred revenue for invoices issued on a cancellable contract. During the year ended December 31, 2019, the Company recognized approximately $147.2 million of revenue related to its deferred revenue balance at January 1, 2019. During the year ended December 31, 2018, the Company recognized approximately $134.7 million of revenue related to its deferred revenue balance at January 1, 2018. To determine revenue recognized in the current period from deferred revenue at the beginning of the period, the Company first allocates revenue to the individual deferred revenue balance outstanding at the beginning of the period, until the revenue equals that balance. Approximately $372.0 million of revenue is expected to be recognized during the next 12 to 24 months from remaining performance obligations as of December 31, 2019.
Cost To Obtain Contracts | Cost to Obtain Contracts The Company capitalizes commissions paid to sales representatives and related fringe benefits costs that are incremental to obtaining customer contracts. These costs are included in deferred commissions on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The judgments made in determining the amount of costs incurred include the types of costs to capitalize and whether the costs are in fact incremental. The Company elected the practical expedient to account for these costs at a portfolio level as the Company’s contracts are similar in nature and the amortization model used closely matches the amortization expense that would be recognized on a contract-by-contract basis. Costs to obtain a contract are amortized to operations as the related revenue is recognized over the initial contract term. Amortization of the expense related to deferred commissions was $36.0 million and $32.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively. The Company evaluates the recoverability of deferred commissions at each balance sheet date.
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts | Allowance for Doubtful Accounts Forrester maintains an allowance for doubtful accounts for estimated losses resulting from the inability of its customers to make contractually obligated payments. When evaluating the adequacy of the allowance for doubtful accounts, the Company makes judgments regarding the collectability of accounts receivable by specifically analyzing historical bad debts, customer concentrations, current economic trends, and changes in the customer payment terms. If the financial condition of the Company’s customers were to deteriorate, resulting in an impairment of their ability to make payments, additional allowances may be required and if the financial condition of the Company’s customers were to improve, the allowances may be reduced accordingly.
Leases | Leases The Company determines whether an arrangement is a lease at inception of the arrangement. The Company accounts for a lease when it has the right to control the leased asset for a period of time while obtaining substantially all of the assets’ economic benefits. All of the Company’s leases are operating leases, the majority of which are for office space. Operating lease ROU assets and non-current operating lease liabilities are included as individual line items on the Consolidated Balance Sheets while short-term operating lease liabilities are recorded within accrued expenses and other current liabilities. Operating lease ROU assets and operating lease liabilities are recognized based on the present value of the future minimum lease payments over the lease term at commencement date. The discount rate used to determine the present value of the lease payments is the Company’s incremental borrowing rate based on the information available at lease inception, as generally an implicit rate in the lease is not readily determinable. An operating lease ROU asset includes all lease payments, lease incentives and initial direct costs incurred. Some of the Company’s leases include options to extend or terminate the lease. When determining the lease term, these options are included in the measurement and recognition of the Company’s ROU assets and lease liabilities when it is reasonably certain that the Company will exercise the option. The Company considers various economic factors when making this determination, including, but not limited to, the significance of leasehold improvements incurred in the office space, the difficulty in replacing the asset, underlying contractual obligations, or specific characteristics unique to a particular lease. Subsequent to entering into a lease arrangement, the Company reassesses the certainty of exercising options to extend or terminate a lease. When it becomes reasonably certain that the Company will exercise an option that was not included in the lease term, the Company accounts for the change in circumstances as a lease modification, which results in the remeasurement of the ROU asset and lease liability as of the modification date. Lease expense for operating leases is recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term based on the total lease payments (which include initial direct costs and lease incentives). The expense is included in operating expenses in the Consolidated Statements of Income (Loss). The Company’s lease agreements generally contain lease and non-lease components. Non-lease components are fixed charges stated in an agreement and primarily include payments for parking at the leased office facilities. The Company accounts for the lease and fixed payments for non-lease components as a single lease component under Topic 842, which increases the amount of the ROU assets and lease liabilities. Most of the Company’s lease agreements also contain variable payments, primarily maintenance-related costs, which are expensed as incurred and not included in the measurement of the ROU assets and lease liabilities. Leases with an initial term of twelve months or less are not recorded on the Consolidated Balance Sheets and are not material.
Advertising Costs | Advertising Costs The Company expenses advertising costs as incurred. Advertising expense for the years ended December 31, 2019, 2018 and 2017 was $1.3 million, $0.6 million, and $0.7 million, respectively, and consisted primarily of online marketing and is included in selling and marketing expense in the Consolidated Statements of Income (Loss).
Stock-Based Compensation | Stock-Based Compensation The Company recognizes the fair value of stock-based compensation expense over the requisite service period of the individual grantee, which generally equals the vesting period. Forfeitures are recognized as they occur and all income tax effects related to settlements of share-based payment awards are reported in earnings as an increase or decrease to income tax expense. All income tax-related cash flows resulting from share-based payments are reported as operating activities in the statement of cash flows and cash paid by directly withholding shares for tax withholding purposes is classified as a financing activity. Stock-based compensation expense was recorded in the following expense categories (in thousands):
|  | Years Ended December 31, |
|  | 2019 |  |  | 2018 |  |  | 2017 |
Cost of services and fulfillment |  | $ | 6,627 |  |  | $ | 4,329 |  |  | $ | 4,538 |
Selling and marketing |  |  | 1,768 |  |  |  | 1,065 |  |  |  | 717 |
General and administrative |  |  | 3,289 |  |  |  | 2,906 |  |  |  | 3,235 |
Total |  | $ | 11,684 |  |  | $ | 8,300 |  |  | $ | 8,490 |
Shares subject to the employee stock purchase plan were valued utilizing the Black-Scholes model using the following assumptions and had the following fair values (no options were granted in 2019, 2018 or 2017):
|  | Years Ended December 31, |
|  | 2019 |  |  | 2018 |  |  | 2017 |
Average risk-free interest rate |  |  | 1.89 | % |  |  | 1.90 | % |  |  | 0.90 | %
Expected dividend yield |  |  | 0.0 | % |  |  | 1.9 | % |  |  | 1.9 | %
Expected life |  | 0.5 Years |  |  | 0.5 Years |  |  | 0.5 Years |
Expected volatility |  |  | 30 | % |  |  | 23 | % |  |  | 24 | %
Weighted average fair value |  | $ | 8.29 |  |  | $ | 9.13 |  |  | $ | 8.36 |
Prior to the suspension of the quarterly dividend program in November 2018, dividend yields were based on the regular quarterly dividend program approved by the Board of Directors in February 2012. Expected volatility is based, in part, on the historical volatility of Forrester’s common stock as well as management’s expectations of future volatility over the expected term of the awards granted. The risk-free interest rate is based on the U.S. Treasury Constant Maturity rate with an equivalent remaining term. The expected term calculation is based upon the option period of the employee stock purchase plan. The unamortized fair value of stock-based awards as of December 31, 2019 was $21.2 million with a weighted average remaining recognition period of 2.3 years.
Depreciation and Amortization | Depreciation and Amortization Forrester provides for depreciation and amortization of property and equipment, computed using the straight-line method, over estimated useful lives of assets as follows:
|  | Estimated
|  | Useful Life
Computers and equipment |  | 3 to 10 Years
Computer software |  | 3 to 5 Years
Furniture and fixtures |  | 7 Years
Leasehold improvements |  | Shorter of asset life or lease term
Forrester provides for amortization of intangible assets, computed using an accelerated method according to the expected cash flows to be received from the underlying assets, over the respective lives as follows:
|  | Estimated
|  | Useful Life
Customer relationships |  | 5 to 11 Years
Technology |  | 1 to 8 Years
Backlog |  | 2 Years
Trademarks |  | 8 to 16 Years
Income Taxes | Income Taxes Forrester recognizes deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of temporary differences between the financial statements and tax basis of assets and liabilities as well as operating loss carryforwards. Forrester’s provision for income taxes is composed of a current and a deferred provision for federal, state and foreign jurisdictions. The current provision is calculated as the estimated taxes payable or refundable on tax returns for the current year. The deferred provision is calculated as the net change during the year in deferred tax assets and liabilities. Valuation allowances are provided if based on the weight of available evidence, it is more likely than not that some or all of the deferred tax asset will not be realized. Forrester accounts for uncertain tax positions using a “more-likely-than-not” threshold for recognizing and resolving uncertain tax positions. The evaluation of uncertain tax positions is based on factors including, but not limited to, changes in tax law, the measurement of tax positions taken or expected to be taken in tax returns, the effective settlement of matters subject to audit, new audit activity, and changes in facts or circumstances related to a tax position. The Company evaluates these tax positions on a quarterly basis. The Company also accrues for potential interest and penalties related to unrecognized tax benefits in income tax expense.
Net Income (Loss) Per Common Share | Net Income (Loss) Per Common Share Basic net income (loss) per common share is computed by dividing net income (loss) by the basic weighted average number of common shares outstanding during the period. Diluted net income (loss) per common share is computed by dividing net income (loss) by the diluted weighted average number of common shares and common equivalent shares outstanding during the period. The weighted average number of common equivalent shares outstanding has been determined in accordance with the treasury-stock method. Common stock equivalents consist of common stock issuable upon the exercise of outstanding stock options and the vesting of restricted stock units. Basic and diluted weighted average common shares are as follows (in thousands):
|  | Years Ended December 31, |
|  | 2019 |  |  | 2018 |  |  | 2017 |
Basic weighted average common shares outstanding |  |  | 18,492 |  |  |  | 18,091 |  |  |  | 17,919 |
Weighted average common equivalent shares |  |  | — |  |  |  | 289 |  |  |  | 321 |
Diluted weighted average common shares outstanding |  |  | 18,492 |  |  |  | 18,380 |  |  |  | 18,240 |
Options and restricted stock units excluded from diluted weighted average share calculation as effect would have been anti-dilutive |  |  | 1,099 |  |  |  | 8 |  |  |  | 133 |
Recent Accounting Pronouncements | Recent Accounting Pronouncements In June 2016, the FASB issued ASU No. 2016-13, Financial Instruments - Credit Losses: Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Instruments. The new standard amends the current financial instrument impairment model by requiring entities to use a forward-looking approach based on expected losses to estimate credit losses on certain types of financial instruments, including trade receivables. The new standard will be effective for the Company on January 1, 2020. The adoption of this standard is not expected to have a material impact on the Company’s financial position or results of operations. In January 2017, the FASB issued ASU No. 2017-04, Intangibles-Goodwill and Other: Simplifying the Test for Goodwill Impairment. The new standard simplifies the subsequent measurement of goodwill by eliminating Step 2 from the goodwill impairment test and requires that instead, an entity should perform its goodwill impairment test by comparing the fair value of a reporting unit with its carrying amount. The new standard will be effective for the Company on January 1, 2020. The adoption of this standard is not expected to have a material impact on the Company’s financial position or results of operations. In August 2018, the FASB issued ASU No. 2018-13, Fair Value Measurement Disclosure Framework – Changes to the Disclosure Requirements for Fair Value Measurement. The new standard modifies the disclosure requirements on fair value measurements in Topic 820, Fair Value Measurement. The standard includes changes to fair value transfers and Level 3 fair value disclosures. The new standard will be effective for the Company on January 1, 2020. The adoption of this standard is not expected to have a material impact on the Company’s financial position or results of operations. In August 2018, the FASB issued ASU No. 2018-15, Intangibles-Goodwill and Other-Internal-Use Software: Customer’s Accounting for Implementation Costs Incurred in a Cloud Computing Arrangement That is a Service Contract. The new standard aligns the requirements for capitalizing implementation costs incurred in a hosting arrangement that is a service contract with the requirements for capitalizing implementation costs incurred to develop or obtain internal-use software (and hosting arrangements that include an internal-use software license). The new standard will be effective for the Company on January 1, 2020. The adoption of this standard is not expected to have a material impact on the Company’s financial position or results of operations. In December 2019, the FASB issued ASU No. 2019-12, Income Taxes – Simplifying the Accounting for Income Taxes. The new standard provides guidance to simplify the accounting for income taxes in certain areas, changes the accounting for select income tax transactions and makes minor ASC improvements. The new standard will be effective for the Company on January 1, 2021. The Company is currently evaluating the potential impact that this standard may have on its financial position and results of operations.

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