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Summary of Significant Accounting Policies | 12 Months Ended
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Dec. 31, 2024
Accounting Policies [Abstract] |
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies | Summary of Significant Accounting Policies Use of Estimates The preparation of the consolidated financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, the disclosure of contingent liabilities at the date of the financial statements, and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting period. Significant estimates and assumptions reflected in these consolidated financial statements include, but are not limited to, revenue recognition, provision for transaction losses, allowance for doubtful accounts, impairment assessment of goodwill, capitalization of internal-use software and the determination of useful lives, income taxes, and the valuation of stock-based compensation and leases. The Company evaluates its estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Actual results could differ from those estimates and such differences may be material to the consolidated financial statements. Foreign Currency and Currency Translation The Company has determined that the functional currency for its foreign operations is the currency of the primary cash flow of the operation, which is generally the local currency in which the operation is located. All assets and liabilities are generally translated into U.S. dollars using exchange rates in effect at the balance sheet date. Income and expenses are translated at the average exchange rate in effect during the period. Unrealized translation gains and losses are recorded as a translation adjustment, which is included in the consolidated statements of stockholders’ equity as a component of accumulated other comprehensive loss. Adjustments that arise from exchange rate changes on transactions denominated in a currency other than the local currency are included in other, net in the consolidated statements of operations. Segment Information An operating segment is defined as a component of a business for which separate financial information is available that is evaluated regularly by the chief operating decision maker (the “CODM”). The Company operates and manages its business as one reportable and operating segment. The Company’s chief executive officer, who is the chief operating decision maker, reviews financial information on a consolidated basis for purposes of evaluating financial performance and allocating resources. The Company’s single reportable and operating segment contains one reporting unit, which consists of the Company’s online marketplace that enables commerce between sellers and buyers. The CODM regularly reviews the GAAP consolidated statement of operations from a significant expense perspective when evaluating financial performance and allocating resources. While the CODM also reviews other funnel metrics regularly (GMV, Number of Orders, etc.), there are no additional significant segment expenses other than those disclosed in the consolidated statements of operations included within this section, Item 8. Financial Statements. Business Combinations The Company accounts for business combinations using the acquisition method of accounting. The Company measures the tangible and intangible identifiable assets acquired, liabilities assumed, any non-controlling interest in the acquiree, and contingent consideration at fair value as of the acquisition date. Any excess purchase price over the fair value of net assets acquired is recorded as goodwill. Measurement period adjustments, if any, to the preliminary estimated fair value of the intangibles assets as of the acquisition date are recorded in goodwill. The results of businesses acquired in a business combination are included in the Company’s consolidated financial statements from the date of acquisition. Acquisition-related expenses represent expenses incurred by the Company to effect a business combination, including expenses such as finder’s fees and advisory, legal, accounting, valuation, and other professional or consulting fees, and are not included as a component of consideration transferred, but are accounted for as an expense in the period in which the costs are incurred or the services are rendered. Concentrations of Credit Risk Financial instruments that potentially subject the Company to concentrations of credit risk consist principally of cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments. Cash and cash equivalents are placed with large financial institutions that management believes are of high credit quality. At times, the Company’s cash balances with individual banking institutions are in excess of federally insured limits. The risk for short-term investments is mitigated by the high quality nature of the investments. The Company has not experienced any credit losses related to its cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, the Company had no single seller, who the Company considers its customers, that represented more than 10% of its net revenue. Cash, Cash Equivalents, and Restricted Cash The following represents the Company’s cash, cash equivalents, and restricted cash as of the periods presented:
| December 31,
(in thousands) | 2024 |  | 2023 |  | 2022
Cash and cash equivalents | $ | 25,964 |  | $ | 37,395 |  | $ | 153,209
Restricted cash, current | — |  | — |  | 1,500
Restricted cash, non-current | 3,657 |  | 3,580 |  | 3,334
Total cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash | $ | 29,621 |  | $ | 40,975 |  | $ | 158,043
The Company considers all short-term, highly liquid investments purchased with an original maturity of three months or less at the date of purchase to be cash equivalents. Certain cash equivalents consist of investments in debt securities that are classified as available-for-sale. During the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company purchased $28.8 million of available-for-sale securities classified as cash equivalents. During the year ended December 31, 2023, the Company purchased $43.1 million of available-for-sale securities classified as cash equivalents, and there were no purchases of available-for-sale securities during the year ended December 31, 2022. As of December 31, 2024, the Company’s restricted cash relates to $3.7 million in Letters of Credit for its office leases in New York, New York. Additionally, $1.5 million was held in a joint escrow account in connection with the sale of 1stdibs Design Manager, Inc. (“Design Manager”) during the year ended December 31, 2022. During the year ended December 31, 2023, the restriction was lifted and the funds were released. The carrying value of the restricted cash approximates fair value. Short-term Investments Short-term investments designated as available-for-sale securities are carried at fair value, which is based on quoted market prices for such securities, if available, or is estimated on the basis of quoted market prices of financial instruments with similar characteristics. Investments with original maturities greater than 90 days and less than one year are classified within short-term investments on the Company’s consolidated balance sheets. In addition, investments with maturities beyond one year at the time of purchase that are highly liquid in nature and represent the investment of cash that is available for current operations are classified as short-term investments. Any other investments with original maturities greater than one year would be classified within long-term investments. Additionally, the Company records accrued interest receivable within other current assets on its consolidated balance sheets. Accrued interest receivable was $0.6 million and $0.5 million as of December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, respectively. Unrealized gains and losses of available-for-sale securities are excluded from earnings and are reported as a component of other comprehensive income (loss) until the security is sold, has matured, or the Company determines that the fair value of the security has declined below its adjusted cost basis and the decline is not due to a credit loss. Realized gains and losses on short-term investments are calculated based on the specific identification method and are reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive loss to other, net in the Company’s consolidated statements of operations. Short-term investments are evaluated for impairment quarterly. The Company’s portfolio of available-for-sale debt securities is required to incorporate forward-looking information to determine any credit losses. This risk is mitigated by the high quality nature of the investments. The Company evaluates the current expected credit loss by considering various factors in determining whether it should recognize an impairment charge, including the credit quality of the issuer, the duration that the fair value has been less than the adjusted cost basis, the severity and reason for the decline in value, and the Company’s intent to sell and ability to hold the investment for a period of time sufficient to allow for any anticipated recovery in market value. If the Company concluded that an investment is impaired or a portion of the unrealized loss is a result of a credit loss, it recognizes the charge at that time in the consolidated statements of operations. Determining whether the decline in fair value is due to a credit loss requires management judgment based on the specific facts and circumstances of each security. The ultimate value realized on these securities is subject to market price volatility until they are sold. The Company did not recognize any credit losses related to available-for-sale debt securities during the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023. Accounts Receivable, net The Company’s accounts receivable are recorded at amounts billed to sellers, generally for non-transactional revenue, which includes subscription, listing fees and advertising revenue, and are presented net of an estimated allowance for doubtful accounts on the Company’s consolidated balance sheets. The Company’s accounts receivable do not bear interest and do not require collateral or other security to support related receivables. The allowance for doubtful accounts considers forward-looking information to estimate expected credit losses using a number of factors, including age of the receivable, current economic conditions, historical losses, and management’s assessment and judgment of the sellers. The evaluation is inherently subjective, as it requires estimates that are susceptible to significant revision as more information becomes available. Losses are charged against the allowance when management believes the uncollectibility of a receivable is confirmed and subsequent recoveries, if any, are credited to the allowance. Account balances are written off after all means of collection are exhausted and the potential for non-recovery is determined to be probable. Adjustments to the allowance for doubtful accounts are recorded as a component of provision for transaction losses in the consolidated statements of operations. Receivables from Payment Processors and Payables Due to Sellers Receivables from payment processors represent amounts received from buyers via third-party payment processors which will be deposited by the payment processors to 1stDibs’ bank accounts for payment to sellers and shipping carriers. The Company also collects and remits sales tax from buyers on behalf of sellers in certain jurisdictions as a marketplace facilitator. The portion of the cash and related receivable remaining after deducting the Company’s commission from its sellers and processing fees represents the total payables due to third parties, which consists of payables due to sellers, payables due to shipping carriers in instances where 1stDibs’ shipping services are elected by sellers, and payables due to tax authorities. The Company establishes an allowance for seller refunds for amounts that sellers owe the Company after a return is processed. The allowance for seller refunds was $0.1 million and $0.2 million at December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively and included in other current assets on the Company’s consolidated balance sheets. Property and Equipment, net Property and equipment are stated at cost, net of accumulated depreciation and amortization. Depreciation and amortization are computed using the straight-line method over the assets’ estimated useful lives. The Company capitalizes costs related to internal-use software during the application development stage, including consulting costs and compensation expenses related to employees who devote time to the development projects. The Company records software development costs in property and equipment, net. Costs incurred in the preliminary stages of development activities and post implementation activities are expensed in the period incurred and are included in technology development in the consolidated statements of operations. The Company also capitalizes costs related to specific upgrades and enhancements when it is probable the expenditures will result in additional functionality. Once the project is available for general release, capitalization ceases, and asset amortization begins. Capitalized costs associated with internal-use software are amortized on a straight-line basis over their estimated useful life, which is generally three years, and are included in cost of revenue in the consolidated statements of operations. The general range of useful lives of property and equipment is as follows:
| Estimated Useful Life
Leasehold improvements | Lesser of lease term or life of asset
Furniture and fixtures | 3 years
Computer equipment and software | 3 years
Internal-use software | Lesser of contract term or 3 years
When assets are sold or retired, the cost and related accumulated depreciation or amortization of assets disposed of are removed from the accounts, with any resulting gain or loss recorded in income from operations in the consolidated statements of operations and consolidated statements of comprehensive loss. Costs of repairs and maintenance are expensed as incurred. When events occur or changes in circumstances require, the Company assesses the likelihood of recovering the cost of long-lived assets based on its expectations of future profitability, undiscounted cash flows, and management’s plans with respect to operations to determine if the asset is impaired and subject to write-off. Measurement of any impairment loss is based on the excess of the carrying value of the asset over the fair value. For the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022, there were no impairment losses recorded. Goodwill Goodwill represents the excess of cost over the fair value of the net tangible and identifiable intangible assets acquired in a business combination. Goodwill is not amortized but is tested for impairment annually or more frequently if events or changes in circumstances indicate that the asset may be impaired. The Company’s goodwill is evaluated at the entity level as it is determined there is one reporting unit, 1stDibs. The Company performs its annual goodwill impairment test as of October 1st or more frequently if events or changes in circumstances indicate that the goodwill may be impaired. The Company has the option to first assess qualitative factors to determine whether the existence of events or circumstances leads to a determination that it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. If the Company determines it is not more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, then additional impairment testing is not required. However, if the Company concludes otherwise, then it is required to perform a quantitative assessment for impairment. The quantitative assessment involves comparing the estimated fair value of the reporting unit with its respective book value, including goodwill. If the estimated fair value exceeds book value, goodwill is not impaired. If the book value of the reporting unit exceeds the fair value, an impairment loss is recognized in an amount equal to the excess, not to exceed the total amount of goodwill allocated to the reporting unit. Based on the Company’s assessments, there were no impairment losses recorded during the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022. Leases The Company enters into contracts in the normal course of business and assesses whether any such contracts contain a lease. The Company determines if an arrangement is a lease at inception if it conveys the right to control the identified asset for a period of time in exchange for consideration. The Company classifies leases as operating or financing in nature, and records the associated right-of-use asset and lease liability on its consolidated balance sheet. The lease liability represents the present value of future lease payments, net of lease incentives, discounted using an incremental borrowing rate, which is a management estimate based on the information available at the commencement date of a lease arrangement. Lease expense is recognized as a single lease cost on a straight-line basis over the lease term. The lease term consists of non-cancelable periods and may include options, including those to extend or terminate, if it is reasonably certain they will be exercised. The Company accounts for lease and non-lease components related to operating leases as a single lease component. The Company has elected that costs associated with leases having an initial term of 12 months or less ("short-term leases") are recognized in the consolidated statement of operations on a straight-line basis over the lease term and are not recorded on the balance sheet. Variable lease expense is recognized as incurred and consists primarily of real estate taxes, utilities, and other office space related expenses. Contingencies The Company has certain contingent liabilities that arise in the ordinary course of business activities. The Company accrues for loss contingencies when losses become probable and are reasonably estimable. If the reasonable estimate of the loss is a range and no amount within the range is a better estimate, the minimum amount of the range is recorded as a liability on the Company’s consolidated balance sheets. The Company does not accrue for contingent losses that, in its judgment, are considered to be reasonably possible, but not probable. Fair Value of Financial Instruments Certain assets and liabilities are carried at fair value in accordance with GAAP. Fair value is defined as the exchange price that would be received for an asset or paid to transfer a liability (an exit price) in the principal or most advantageous market for the asset or liability in an orderly transaction between market participants on the measurement date. Valuation techniques used to measure fair value require the Company to maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs. The hierarchy gives the highest priority to unadjusted quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities (Level 1 measurements) and the lowest priority to unobservable inputs (Level 3 measurements). Financial assets and liabilities carried at fair value are to be classified and disclosed in one of the following three levels of the fair value hierarchy, of which the first two are considered observable and the last is considered unobservable: •Level 1—Quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities. •Level 2—Inputs other than quoted prices included in Level 1 that are observable for the asset or liability, such as quoted prices for similar assets or liabilities, quoted prices in markets that are not active, or other inputs that are observable or can be corroborated by observable market data for substantially the full term of the assets or liabilities. •Level 3—Unobservable inputs that are supported by little or no market activity that are significant to determining the fair value of the assets or liabilities, including pricing models, discounted cash flow methodologies, and similar techniques. Short-term investments and certain cash equivalents consist of investments in debt securities that are available-for-sale. The table below segregates all assets that are measured at fair value on a recurring basis into the most appropriate level within the fair value hierarchy based on the inputs used to determine the fair value at the measurement date:
| December 31, 2024
(in thousands) | Level 1 |  | Level 2 |  | Level 3 |  | Total
Cash equivalents: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Money market fund | $ | 6,795 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 6,795 |
U.S. Treasury securities | — |  |  | 3,199 |  |  | — |  |  | 3,199 |
Total cash equivalents | $ | 6,795 |  |  | $ | 3,199 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 9,994 |
Short-term investments: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Commercial paper | $ | — |  |  | $ | 2,263 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 2,263 |
Corporate notes | — |  |  | 27,092 |  |  | — |  |  | 27,092 |
U.S. Treasury securities | — |  |  | 14,852 |  |  | — |  |  | 14,852 |
U.S. Government agency securities | — |  |  | 33,712 |  |  | — |  |  | 33,712 |
Total short-term investments | $ | — |  |  | $ | 77,919 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 77,919 |
| December 31, 2023
(in thousands) | Level 1 |  | Level 2 |  | Level 3 |  | Total
Cash equivalents: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Money market fund | $ | 5,797 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 5,797 |
U.S. Treasury securities | — |  |  | 4,991 |  |  | — |  |  | 4,991 |
Total cash equivalents | $ | 5,797 |  |  | $ | 4,991 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 10,788 |
Short-term investments: |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Commercial paper | $ | — |  |  | $ | 18,112 |  |  | — |  |  | 18,112 |
Corporate notes | — |  |  | 7,641 |  |  | — |  |  | 7,641 |
U.S. Treasury securities | — |  |  | 11,971 |  |  | — |  |  | 11,971 |
U.S. Government agency securities | — |  |  | 64,202 |  |  | — |  |  | 64,202 |
Total short-term investments | $ | — |  |  | $ | 101,926 |  |  | $ | — |  |  | $ | 101,926 |
There were no transfers between Level 1, Level 2 or Level 3 during the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023. The Company’s cash equivalents and short-term investments for the periods presented were valued using quoted market prices or alternative pricing sources and models utilizing observable market inputs and were classified as Level 1 or Level 2, accordingly. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, all other financial instruments not included in the table above were classified as Level 1. Income Taxes Income taxes are computed using the asset and liability approach that requires the recognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of events that have been recognized in the Company’s consolidated financial statements. In estimating future tax consequences, the Company considers all expected future events other than enactment of changes in tax laws or rates. A valuation allowance is recorded, if necessary, to reduce net deferred tax assets to their realizable values if management does not believe it is more likely than not that the net deferred tax assets will be realized. The Company follows the provisions of the authoritative guidance from the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) on accounting for uncertainty in income taxes. For benefits to be recognized, a tax position must be more likely than not to be sustained upon examination by the taxing authorities. The amount recognized is measured as the largest amount of benefit that has a greater than 50% likelihood of being realized upon ultimate audit settlement. The Company recognizes interest and penalties related to uncertain tax positions in the provision for income taxes. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, the Company had no accrued interest or penalties related to uncertain tax positions. The Company has made an accounting policy election to treat Global Intangible Low-Taxed Income taxes as a current period expense rather than including these amounts in the measurement of deferred taxes. Net Loss per Share Basic net loss per share is computed by dividing the net loss by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding for the period without consideration of potentially dilutive common stock. Diluted earnings per share is computed by dividing the diluted earnings by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding for the period, including potential dilutive common shares using the treasury stock method. For periods in which the Company reports net losses, diluted net loss per common share is the same as basic net loss per common share because including common stock equivalents would be anti-dilutive Treasury Stock In August 2023, the Board of Directors authorized the Company to repurchase up to an aggregate of $20.0 million of its common stock (“2023 Stock Repurchase Program”). In June 2024, the Board of Directors authorized an increase to the Company’s 2023 Stock Repurchase Program to an aggregate repurchase amount of $25.5 million, and subsequently announced the completion of its 2023 Stock Repurchase Program. In August 2024, the Board of Directors authorized the Company to repurchase up to an aggregate of $10.0 million of its common stock (“2024 Stock Repurchase Program”). The repurchases may be affected, from time-to-time, through open market purchases, privately negotiated transactions, Rule 10b5-1 plans, accelerated stock repurchases, block trades, derivative contracts or otherwise in compliance with Rule 10b-18 of the Exchange Act. The repurchase programs are not subject to a termination or expiration date, and it does not obligate the Company to acquire any specific number of shares. The timing, price and volume of repurchases will be based on a number of factors, including market conditions, relevant securities laws, and other considerations. The repurchased common stock is classified as treasury stock on the consolidated balance sheets. The direct costs incurred to acquire treasury stock are treated like stock issue costs and added to the cost of the treasury stock, which includes applicable fees and taxes. Repurchased common stock is stated at cost, determined on an average cost basis and is presented as a reduction of stockholders’ equity on the consolidated balance sheets. Revenue Recognition The Company’s net revenue consists principally of seller marketplace services. Seller marketplace services primarily consist of marketplace transactions, subscriptions, and listing fees. Revenue is recognized as the Company transfers control of promised goods or services to customers, in an amount that reflects the consideration the Company expects to be entitled to in exchange for those goods or services. Control is transferred when the buyer and seller have agreed to the sale. The Company does not obtain legal title to or control the goods being purchased. The Company evaluates whether it is appropriate to recognize revenue on a gross or net basis based upon its evaluation of whether the Company obtains control of the specified goods or services by considering if it is primarily responsible for fulfillment of the promise, has inventory risk, has the latitude in establishing pricing and selecting suppliers, among other factors. The Company does not have any remaining performance obligations associated with contracts with terms greater than one year. Marketplace Transactions The Company charges sellers commission and processing fees for successful purchases through its online marketplace. For the items purchased through the 1stDibs online marketplace, the Company collects the Gross Merchandise Value (“GMV”) from the buyer, and recognizes the associated revenue on a net basis, which equates to the commission and processing fees earned in exchange for the seller marketplace services. The commission fees range from 5% to 50% of GMV and processing fees, which are approximately 3% of the buyer’s total payment, net of expected refunds. If a seller accepts a return or refund of an on-platform purchase, the related commission and processing fees are refunded to the seller. The Company records discounts provided to the end buyer, to whom the Company has no performance obligation, such as promotional discounts, in sales and marketing expense since the discounts are not related directly to the Company’s revenue source but rather used as a marketing tool, and the seller is not made aware of the discounts provided to the end buyer. The commission and processing fees are recognized net of estimated refunds when the corresponding transaction is confirmed by the buyer and seller. The Company does not take title to inventory sold or assume risk of loss at any point in time during the transaction and is authorized to collect consideration from the buyer and remit net consideration to the seller to facilitate the processing of the confirmed purchase transaction. Subscriptions The Company offers its sellers various subscription pricing tiers which allows them to choose the plan that best fits their business, with choices of a higher monthly subscription fee and lower commission rates or a lower monthly subscription fee and higher commission rates. Sellers receive the benefit of marketplace activities, including listing items for sale, completing sales transactions, and payments processing, which represents a single stand-ready performance obligation. The Company has determined that its customers are sellers on its online marketplace since sellers pay for the use of the platform to sell their inventory. Subscription fees are calculated on an annual basis, payable and recognized monthly. If during the annual subscription period a seller ceases to make its monthly payment, the Company is no longer obligated to provide the subscribed services and the seller can be terminated at the Company’s sole discretion. Listings The Company earns listing fees from sellers on a per item basis as directed by the seller to promote certain items at the seller’s discretion. Listing fees are recognized ratably over time when the listing is publicly posted. Advertisements Advertising revenue is generated by displaying seller ads on the 1stDibs online marketplace. For advertising services, the Company enters into agreements with advertisers, or sellers, in the form of signed insertion orders, which specify the terms of services and fees, prior to advertising campaigns being run. The Company recognizes revenue from the display of impression-based ads in the period in which the impressions are delivered in accordance with the contractual terms of the insertion orders. Impressions are considered delivered when an ad is displayed to users. Contract Costs The Company capitalizes commission costs that are incremental and directly related to the acquisition of seller agreements. Commissions are earned by the Company’s sales force when the seller’s listings are publicly visible and available for purchase on the 1stDibs online marketplace. Commission costs are capitalized when earned and are amortized as expense over an estimated seller relationship period of three years. The Company determined the estimated seller relationship period by taking into consideration the contractual term of the seller agreements, the seller’s lifetime expected value, and the fact that no additional commission is paid for renewed seller agreements. The Company periodically reviews the costs to obtain revenue contracts to determine whether events or changes in circumstances have occurred that could impact the period of benefit of these costs to obtain revenue contracts. Contract Balances from Contracts with Customers A contract liability is an obligation to transfer goods or services for which consideration has been received or is due to a customer. Contract liabilities consist of deferred revenue that is unearned related to advertising fees charged to sellers for which advertisements have not been delivered. Deferred revenue for advertising fees is recognized as revenue in the periods in which our performance obligations are satisfied. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, deferred revenue was less than $0.1 million and $0.1 million, respectively. Cost of Revenue Cost of revenue includes payment processor fees, hosting expenses, and expenses associated with payroll, employee benefits, stock-based compensation, other headcount-related expenses associated with personnel supporting revenue-related operations, amortization of internal-use software, and consulting costs. In certain transactions where 1stDibs shipping and logistics services are elected by sellers, the Company enables shipping of items purchased from the seller to the buyer. Any difference between the amount collected for shipping and the amount charged by the shipping carrier is included in cost of revenue in the consolidated statements of operations. Sales and Marketing Sales and marketing expenses include payroll, employee benefits, stock-based compensation, other headcount-related expenses associated with sales and marketing personnel, advertising expense, consulting costs, and promotional discounts offered to new and existing buyers. Advertising expenses consist primarily of costs incurred promoting and marketing the Company’s online marketplace, such as costs associated with acquiring new users through performance-based marketing, social media, email, and events. Promotional discounts and incentives represent incentives solely to end buyers and, therefore, are not considered payments made to the Company’s customers. Buyers are not customers because access to the 1stDibs online marketplace is free for buyers and the Company has no performance obligations with respect to buyers. The Company expenses all advertising expenses as incurred. During the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023, and 2022, the Company incurred advertising expenses of approximately $13.5 million, $11.0 million, and $16.3 million, respectively. Technology Development Technology development expenses include payroll, employee benefits, stock-based compensation, and other headcount-related expenses associated with engineering and product development personnel and consulting costs related to technology development. The Company expenses all technology development expenses as incurred. Expenses that meet the criteria for capitalization as internal-use software are capitalized to property and equipment, net on the consolidated balance sheets and amortized over their useful life. This amortization expense related to internal-use software is included in cost of revenue in the consolidated statements of operations. General and Administrative General and administrative expenses include payroll, employee benefits, stock-based compensation, other headcount-related expenses associated with finance, legal, facility and human resources related personnel, lease expense, net of sublease income, business liability insurance, accounting, professional fees, and depreciation and amortization of property and equipment. The Company expenses all general and administrative expenses as incurred. Provision for Transaction Losses Provision for transaction losses consists primarily of losses resulting from the Company’s buyer protection program, including damages to products caused by shipping and transit, items that were not received or not as represented by the seller, and reimbursements to buyers at the Company’s discretion if they are dissatisfied with their experience. The provision for transaction losses also includes bad debt expense associated with the Company’s accounts receivable. Restructuring Charges In September 2022, the Company announced and implemented a restructuring plan to reduce operational costs and realign investment priorities involving the reduction of approximately 10% of the Company’s workforce. As a result of the reduction, the Company incurred approximately $0.7 million in restructuring charges, consisting primarily of employee severance and benefits costs. In June 2023, the Company announced a workforce reduction designed to further reduce operating costs and further realign investment priorities involving the reduction of approximately 20% of the Company’s global workforce. As a result of the reduction, the Company incurred approximately $2.0 million in restructuring charges during the year ended December 31, 2023, consisting primarily of employee severance and benefits costs. During the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company incurred $1.4 million of additional employee severance and benefits costs relating to a further workforce reduction. The majority of the $1.3 million of severance accrued as of December 31, 2024 is anticipated to be paid during the year ending December 31, 2025, while approximately $0.1 million is expected to be paid during the first quarter of 2026. The following table displays a rollforward of the charges to the accrued balance as of December 31, 2024:
(in thousands) | Restructuring Charges
Balance, December 31, 2022 | $ | 64 |
Restructuring charges | 2,004 |
Cash payments | (1,672) |
Balance, December 31, 2023 | $ | 396 |
Restructuring charges | 1,391 |
Cash payments | (525) |
Balance, December 31, 2024 | $ | 1,262 |
The employee severance and benefits costs are included within the respective financial statement line items on the consolidated statement of operations as shown in the table below for the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022.
| Year Ended December 31,
(in thousands) | 2024 |  | 2023 |  | 2022
Cost of revenue | $ | — |  |  | $ | 135 |  |  | $ | 58 |
Sales and marketing | 923 |  |  | 789 |  |  | 333 |
Technology development | — |  |  | 1,044 |  |  | 201 |
General and administrative | 468 |  |  | 36 |  |  | 68 |
Total | $ | 1,391 |  |  | $ | 2,004 |  |  | $ | 660 |
Stock-Based Compensation The Company measures all stock-based awards granted to employees, directors, and non-employees based on the fair value on the date of the grant and recognizes compensation expense for those awards over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. The Company recognizes forfeitures as they occur. The fair value of restricted stock units is based on the closing price of the Company's common stock on the grant date. The Company has not issued any stock options during the years ended December 31, 2024 or 2023; however, for stock options issued prior, the fair value of each stock option is estimated on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, which required inputs based on certain subjective assumptions, including the closing price of the Company's common stock on the grant date, expected stock price volatility, the expected term of the award, the risk-free interest rate for a period that approximated the expected term of the option, and the Company’s expected dividend yield. Expected volatility was calculated based on the implied volatilities from market comparisons of certain publicly traded companies and other factors. The expected option term was calculated based on the simplified method based on options that had been granted to date, which used the midpoint between the vesting date and the contractual term, as the Company at the time of the last option grant did not have sufficient historical data to develop an estimate based on participant behavior. The risk-free interest rate was based on the U.S. Treasury bond yield with an equivalent term. The Company has not paid dividends and has no foreseeable plans to pay dividends. The Company classifies stock-based compensation expense in its consolidated statements of operations in the same manner in which the award recipient’s payroll costs or service payments are classified. Recent Accounting Pronouncements From time to time, new accounting pronouncements are issued by the FASB under its ASC or other standard setting bodies. The Company is an emerging growth company, as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012 (the “JOBS Act”). Under the JOBS Act, emerging growth companies can delay adopting new or revised accounting standards issued subsequent to the enactment of the JOBS Act until such time as those standards apply to private companies. The Company has elected to use this extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards that have different effective dates for public and private companies until the earlier of the date that it (i) is no longer an emerging growth company or (ii) affirmatively and irrevocably opts out of the extended transition period provided in the JOBS Act. As a result, these financial statements may not be comparable to companies that comply with the new or revised accounting pronouncements as of public company effective dates. Recently Adopted Accounting Pronouncements In November 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-07, Segment Reporting (Topic 280): Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures, which aims to improve reportable segment disclosure requirements, primarily through enhanced disclosures about significant segment expenses. The Company adopted the standard effective for the year ended December 31, 2024, its impact was not material for its consolidated financial statements or related disclosures, updates to the disclosure are included within this Note 2, “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies.” Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements Not Yet Adopted In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures, which modifies the rules on income tax disclosures. The standard will require entities to disclose (1) specific categories in the rate reconciliation, (2) the income or loss from continuing operations before income tax expense or benefit (separated between domestic and foreign) and (3) income tax expense or benefit from continuing operations (separated by federal, state and foreign). ASU 2023-09 also requires entities to disclose their income tax payments to international, federal, state and local jurisdictions, among other changes. The new standard is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2024. The Company expects the adoption of the standard will require additional disclosures, but will not have a financial impact on the Company’s consolidated balance sheets and statement of operations. In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU 2024-03, Income Statement-Reporting Comprehensive Income-Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses. The standard was issued to improve disclosures regarding the types of expenses included in commonly presented expense captions. The new standard is effective for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2026, and interim reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027. Early adoption is permitted. The Company is currently evaluating the impact that the adoption of this standard will have on its consolidated financial statements.

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