<SEC-DOCUMENT>0001104659-25-026682.txt : 20250321
<SEC-HEADER>0001104659-25-026682.hdr.sgml : 20250321
<ACCEPTANCE-DATETIME>20250321163111
ACCESSION NUMBER:		0001104659-25-026682
CONFORMED SUBMISSION TYPE:	S-1/A
PUBLIC DOCUMENT COUNT:		4
FILED AS OF DATE:		20250321
DATE AS OF CHANGE:		20250321

FILER:

	COMPANY DATA:	
		COMPANY CONFORMED NAME:			Theriva Biologics, Inc.
		CENTRAL INDEX KEY:			0000894158
		STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION:	PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS [2834]
		ORGANIZATION NAME:           	03 Life Sciences
		IRS NUMBER:				133808303
		STATE OF INCORPORATION:			NV
		FISCAL YEAR END:			1231

	FILING VALUES:
		FORM TYPE:		S-1/A
		SEC ACT:		1933 Act
		SEC FILE NUMBER:	333-283722
		FILM NUMBER:		25760976

	BUSINESS ADDRESS:	
		STREET 1:		9605 MEDICAL CENTER DRIVE
		STREET 2:		SUITE 270
		CITY:			ROCKVILLE
		STATE:			MD
		ZIP:			20850
		BUSINESS PHONE:		(734) 332-7800

	MAIL ADDRESS:	
		STREET 1:		9605 MEDICAL CENTER DRIVE
		STREET 2:		SUITE 270
		CITY:			ROCKVILLE
		STATE:			MD
		ZIP:			20850

	FORMER COMPANY:	
		FORMER CONFORMED NAME:	Synthetic Biologics, Inc.
		DATE OF NAME CHANGE:	20120305

	FORMER COMPANY:	
		FORMER CONFORMED NAME:	ADEONA PHARMACEUTICALS, INC.
		DATE OF NAME CHANGE:	20081027

	FORMER COMPANY:	
		FORMER CONFORMED NAME:	PIPEX PHARMACEUTICALS, INC.
		DATE OF NAME CHANGE:	20061214
</SEC-HEADER>
<DOCUMENT>
<TYPE>S-1/A
<SEQUENCE>1
<FILENAME>tm2430478d5_s1a.htm
<DESCRIPTION>FORM S-1/A
<TEXT>
<html>
<head>
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<body style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif">

<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"> <b>As filed with the Securities and Exchange
Commission on March&nbsp;21, 2025</b> </p>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: right"><b>Registration No.&nbsp;333-283722</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

<!-- Field: Rule-Page --><div style="width: 100%"><div style="border-top: Black 2pt solid; font-size: 1pt; border-bottom: Black 1pt solid">&nbsp;</div></div><!-- Field: /Rule-Page -->

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>UNITED STATES</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Washington, D.C. 20549</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; text-align: center; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"> <font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>Amendment
No.&nbsp;2</b></font> </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; text-align: center; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><b>to</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>FORM&nbsp;S-1</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>REGISTRATION STATEMENT UNDER THE SECURITIES
ACT OF 1933</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 14pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc.</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">(Exact Name of Registrant as Specified in its
Charter)</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; width: 34%; text-align: center"><b>Nevada</b></td>
    <td style="width: 1%; text-align: center">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; width: 30%; text-align: center"><b>2834</b></td>
    <td style="width: 1%; text-align: center">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; width: 34%; text-align: center"><b>26-279813</b></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="text-align: center">(State or other jurisdiction of<br>
    incorporation or organization)</td>
    <td style="text-align: center">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="text-align: center">(Primary Standard Industrial<br>
    Classification Code Number)</td>
    <td style="text-align: center">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="text-align: center">(I.R.S. Employer<br>
    Identification No.)</td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>9605 Medical Center, Suite&nbsp;270</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Rockville, MD 20850</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>(301) 417-4364</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">(Address,&nbsp;Including Zip Code, and Telephone
Number,&nbsp;Including Area Code, of Registrant&rsquo;s Principal Executive Offices)</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Steven A. Shallcross</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Chief Executive Officer and</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Chief Financial Officer</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>9605 Medical Center, Suite&nbsp;270</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Rockville, MD 20850</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>(301) 417-4364</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">(Name, Address,&nbsp;Including Zip Code, and Telephone
Number,&nbsp;Including Area Code, of Agent for Service)</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b><i>Copies to:</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 49%; text-align: center"><b>Leslie Marlow,&nbsp;Esq.<br>
    Patrick J. Egan,&nbsp;Esq.</b><br>
    <b>Melissa Palat Murawsky,&nbsp;Esq.<br>
    Hank Gracin,&nbsp;Esq.<br>
    Blank Rome LLP<br>
    1271 Avenue of the Americas<br>
    New York, New York 10020<br>
    Phone: (212) 885-5000</b></td>
    <td style="width: 51%"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Faith L. Charles,&nbsp;Esq.</b></p>
    <p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Thompson Hine LLP</b></p>
    <p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>300 Madison Avenue, 27<sup>th</sup>&nbsp;Floor</b></p>
    <p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>New York, New York 10017</b></p>
    <p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>(212) 344-5680</b></p></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify"><b>Approximate date of commencement of proposed
sale to the public:</b>&nbsp;From time to time after the date this registration statement becomes effective.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: left">If any of the securities being registered on this
Form&nbsp;are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule&nbsp;415 under the Securities Act of 1933, check the following
box.&nbsp;&nbsp;<font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#120;</font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: left">If this Form&nbsp;is filed to register additional
securities for an offering pursuant to Rule&nbsp;462(b)&nbsp;under the Securities Act, please check the following box and list the Securities
Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.&nbsp;&nbsp;<font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#168;</font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: left">If this Form&nbsp;is a post-effective amendment
filed pursuant to Rule&nbsp;462(c)&nbsp;under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement
number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.&nbsp;&nbsp;<font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#168;</font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: left">If this Form&nbsp;is a post-effective amendment
filed pursuant to Rule&nbsp;462(d)&nbsp;under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement
number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.&nbsp;&nbsp;<font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#168;</font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: left">Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is
a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company.
See the definitions of &ldquo;large accelerated filer,&rdquo; &ldquo;accelerated filer&rdquo;, &ldquo;smaller reporting company&rdquo;
and &ldquo;emerging growth company&rdquo; in Rule&nbsp;12b-2 of the Exchange Act.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="width: 18%">Large accelerated filer</td>
    <td style="width: 40%"><font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#168;</font></td>
    <td style="width: 20%">Accelerated filer</td>
    <td style="width: 22%; text-align: left"><font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#168;</font></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td>Non-accelerated filer</td>
    <td><font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#120;</font></td>
    <td>Smaller reporting company</td>
    <td style="text-align: left"><font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#120;</font></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td>Emerging growth company</td>
    <td style="text-align: left"><font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#168;</font></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">If an emerging growth company, indicate by check
mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting
standards provided pursuant to Section&nbsp;7(a)(2)(B)&nbsp;of the Securities Act.&nbsp;&nbsp;<font style="font-family: Wingdings">&#168;</font></p>

<p style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: left"><b>The Registrant hereby amends this Registration
Statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the Registrant shall file a further amendment which
specifically states that this Registration Statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section&nbsp;8(a)&nbsp;of the
Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or until the Registration Statement shall become effective on such date as the Commission, acting
pursuant to said Section&nbsp;8(a), may determine.</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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    <div style="margin-top: 12pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; border-bottom: Black 1pt solid"><p style="margin: 0pt">&nbsp;</p></div>
    <div style="break-before: page; margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 12pt"><p style="margin: 0pt">&nbsp;</p></div>
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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: left; color: #D2232A"><b>The information in this prospectus
is not complete and may be changed. These securities may not be sold until the registration statement filed with the Securities and Exchange
Commission is effective. This prospectus is not an offer to sell these securities and it is not soliciting an offer to buy these securities
in any jurisdiction where the offer or sale is not permitted.</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; width: 100%"><tr style="vertical-align: top; text-align: justify">
<td style="width: 35%"> <font style="text-transform: uppercase; color: rgb(210,35,41)"><b>PRELIMINARY PROSPECTUS</b></font> </td><td style="width: 30%; text-align: center"> <font style="color: rgb(210,35,41)"><b>SUBJECT
                                            TO COMPLETION</b></font> </td><td style="text-align: right; width: 35%"> <font style="color: rgb(210,35,41)"><b>DATED&nbsp;<font style="text-transform: uppercase">MARCH
                                            </font>21, 2025</b></font> </td>
</tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; text-align: center; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><img src="tm2430478d2_s1img001.jpg" alt=""></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"> <b>Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Shares of Common Stock<br>
Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Common Warrants to Purchase Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Shares of Common Stock<br>
Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Pre-Funded Warrants to Purchase Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Shares of Common Stock<br>
Up to 16,806,722 &nbsp;Shares of Common Stock Underlying the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants</b> </p>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> We are offering on a best efforts basis up to 8,403,361&nbsp;shares
of our common stock, par value $0.001 (the &ldquo;Common Stock&rdquo;), together with warrants to purchase up to 8,403,361&nbsp;shares
of our Common Stock. Each share of Common Stock, or a pre-funded warrant in lieu thereof, is being sold together with a common warrant
to purchase one share of Common Stock (the &ldquo;Common Warrant&rdquo;). The shares of Common Stock and Common Warrants are immediately
separable and will be issued separately in this offering, but must be purchased together in this offering. The assumed public offering
price for each share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant is $1.19, which was the closing price of our Common Stock on the
NYSE American LLC (&ldquo;NYSE American&rdquo;) on March&nbsp;17, 2025. Each Common Warrant will have an exercise price per share of
$[<font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font>] and will be immediately exercisable. The Common Warrants will expire on the 5-year
anniversary of the original issuance date. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We are also offering to certain purchasers whose purchase of shares
of Common Stock in this offering would otherwise result in the purchaser, together with its affiliates and certain related parties, beneficially
owning more than 4.99% (or, at the election of the purchaser, 9.99%) of our outstanding Common Stock immediately following the consummation
of this offering, the opportunity to purchase, if any such purchaser so chooses, pre-funded warrants (the &ldquo;Pre-Funded Warrants&rdquo;),
in lieu of shares of Common Stock that would otherwise result in such purchaser&rsquo;s beneficial ownership exceeding 4.99% (or, at
the election of the purchaser, 9.99%) of our outstanding Common Stock. The public offering price of each Pre-Funded Warrant and accompanying
Common Warrant will be equal to the price at which one share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant is sold to the public in
this offering, minus $0.001, and the exercise price of each Pre-Funded Warrant will be $0.001 per share. The Pre-Funded Warrants will
be immediately exercisable and may be exercised at any time until all of the Pre-Funded Warrants are exercised in full. The Pre-Funded
Warrants and Common Warrants are immediately separable and will be issued separately in this offering, but must be purchased together
in this offering. For each Pre-Funded Warrant we sell, the number of shares of Common Stock we are offering will be decreased on a one-for-one
basis.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have engaged A.G.P./Alliance Global Partners (&ldquo;A.G.P.&rdquo;
or the &ldquo;Placement Agent&rdquo;), to act as our sole placement agent, to use its reasonable best efforts to arrange for the sale
of the securities offered by this prospectus. The Placement Agent is not purchasing or selling any of the securities we are offering,
and the Placement Agent is not required to arrange the purchase or sale of any specific number or dollar amount of securities.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> The securities will be offered at a fixed price and are expected
to be issued in a single closing. The offering will terminate on April&nbsp;30, 2025, unless (i)&nbsp;the closing occurs prior thereto
or (ii)&nbsp;we decide to terminate the offering prior thereto (which we may do at any time in our discretion). Investors purchasing
securities offered hereby will have the option to execute a securities purchase agreement with us. We expect that the closing of the
offering will occur one trading day after we price the securities offered hereby if we price such securities prior to 4:01 p.m.&nbsp;eastern
time on a trading day and two trading days after we price the Securities offered hereby if we price such securities at any other time.
When we price the securities, we will simultaneously enter into securities purchase agreements relating to the offering with those investors
who so choose. The offering will settle delivery versus payment (&ldquo;DVP&rdquo;)/receipt versus payment (&ldquo;RVP&rdquo;). That
is, on the closing date, we will issue the shares of Common Stock directly to the account(s)&nbsp;at the Placement Agent identified by
each purchaser; upon receipt of such shares, the Placement Agent shall promptly electronically deliver such shares to the applicable
purchaser, and payment therefor shall be made by the Placement Agent (or its clearing firm) by wire transfer to us. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Since we will deliver the securities to be issued in this offering
upon our receipt of investor funds, we and the Placement Agent have not made any arrangements to place investor funds in an escrow account
or trust account. Because this is a best-efforts offering, the Placement Agent does not have an obligation to purchase any securities,
and, as a result, there is a possibility that we may not be able to sell the securities. There is no minimum offering requirement as
a condition of closing of this offering. Because there is no minimum offering amount required as a condition to closing this offering,
we may sell fewer than all of the securities offered hereby, which may significantly reduce the amount of proceeds received by us, and
investors in this offering will not receive a refund in the event that we do not sell an amount of securities sufficient to pursue our
business goals described in this prospectus. In addition, because there is no escrow account and no minimum offering amount, investors
could be in a position where they have invested in our company, but we are unable to fulfill all of our contemplated objectives due to
a lack of interest in this offering. Further, any proceeds from the sale of securities offered by us will be available for our immediate
use, despite uncertainty about whether we would be able to use such funds to effectively implement our business plan. See the section
entitled &ldquo;Risk Factors&rdquo; for more information.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> Our Common Stock is listed on the NYSE American under the symbol
 &ldquo;TOVX.&rdquo; On March&nbsp;17, 2025, the last reported sale price of our Common Stock on the NYSE American was $1.19&nbsp;per
share. The actual public offering price per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant, and per Pre-Funded Warrant and accompanying
Common Warrant, will be determined between us, the Placement Agent and the investors in this offering at the time of pricing, and may
be at a discount to the current market price for the Common Stock. Therefore, the recent market price used throughout this preliminary
prospectus as an assumed offering price per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant may not be indicative of the final
offering price. There is no established public trading market for the Common Warrants and the Pre-Funded Warrants, and we do not expect
such a market to develop. Without an active trading market, the liquidity of the Common Warrants and the Pre-Funded Warrants will be
limited. In addition, we do not intend to list the Common Warrants and the Pre-Funded Warrants on NYSE American, any other national securities
exchange or any other trading system. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Investing in our securities involves risks. You should review carefully
the risks and uncertainties described under the heading &ldquo;<i>Risk Factors</i>&rdquo; contained in this prospectus and under similar
headings in the other documents that are incorporated by reference into this prospectus, as described beginning on page&nbsp;9 of this
prospectus.</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Neither the Securities and Exchange Commission nor any state securities
commission has approved or disapproved of the securities to be issued under this prospectus or determined if this prospectus is truthful
or complete. Any representation to the contrary is a criminal offense.</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td><td style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; text-align: center"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Per
                                            Share of<br>
                                            Common Stock<br>
                                            and<br>
                                            Accompanying<br>
                                            Common<br>
                                            Warrant</b></p></td><td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: center">Per Pre-Funded<br> Warrant and<br>
    Accompanying<br> Common<br> Warrant</td><td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: center">Total</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="width: 49%; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left">Public offering price<sup>(1)</sup></td><td style="width: 2%; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 15%; font-size: 10pt">$</td><td style="width: 2%; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 15%; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;$</td><td style="width: 2%; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 15%; font-size: 10pt">$</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left">Placement agent fees<sup>(2)</sup></td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">$</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;$</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">$</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left">Proceeds to us, before expenses<sup>(3)</sup></td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">$</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;$</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">$</td></tr>
  </table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 0.25in"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 0.25in; font-size: 10pt"> (1) </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt"> The assumed combined public offering price is $1.19&nbsp;per share of Common Stock and accompanying
    Common Warrant and $1.189&nbsp;per Pre-Funded Warrant and accompanying Common Warrant. </td></tr>
  </table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(2)</td><td>Represents a cash fee equal to 7.0% of the aggregate purchase
                                            price paid by investors in this offering. See &ldquo;Plan of Distribution&rdquo; for additional
                                            disclosure regarding compensation payable to the Placement Agent.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(3)</td><td>Does not include proceeds from the exercise of the Common
                                            Warrants and/or Pre-Funded Warrants in cash, if any.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Delivery of the securities is expected to be made on or about &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,
2025.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><i>Sole Placement Agent</i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>A.G.P.</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>The date of this prospectus is &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,
2025</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>Table
of Contents</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top; width: 91%"> <a href="#a_001">ABOUT THIS PROSPECTUS</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; width: 9%; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_001">ii</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: White">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_002">SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_002">iii</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_003">PROSPECTUS SUMMARY</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_003">1</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: White">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_004">THE OFFERING</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_004">5</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_005">RISK FACTORS</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_005">8</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: White">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_006">USE OF PROCEEDS</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_006">16</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_007">DIVIDEND POLICY</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_007">18</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: White">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"><a href="#va_001"> <font style="text-transform: uppercase">CAPITALIZATION</font> </a></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"><a href="#va_001"> 19 </a></td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"><a href="#va_002"> <font style="text-transform: uppercase">Dilution</font> </a></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"><a href="#va_002"> 21 </a></td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: White">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_008">DESCRIPTION OF OUR CAPITAL STOCK</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_008">23</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_009">DESCRIPTION OF SECURITIES TO BE REGISTERED</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_009">29</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: White">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_010">MATERIAL UNITED STATES FEDERAL INCOME TAX CONSIDERATIONS</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_010">34</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_011">PLAN OF DISTRIBUTION</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_011">45</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: White">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_012">LEGAL MATTERS</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_012">48</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_013">EXPERTS</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_013">48</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: White">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_014">WHERE YOU CAN FIND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_014">49</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <a href="#a_015">INCORPORATION OF CERTAIN INFORMATION BY REFERENCE</a> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; text-align: right"> <a href="#a_015">50</a> </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_001"></a>ABOUT
THIS PROSPECTUS</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">You should rely only on the information that we have provided or incorporated
by reference in this prospectus. We have not authorized anyone to provide you with different or additional information. If anyone provides
you with different or additional information, you should not rely on it. You should assume that the information in this prospectus is
accurate only as of the date on the cover of the document and that any information we have incorporated by reference is accurate only
as of the date of the document incorporated by reference, regardless of the time of delivery of this prospectus or any sale of a security.
Our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may have changed since those dates.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We urge you to carefully read this prospectus, together with the information
incorporated herein by reference as described under the heading &ldquo;Where You Can Find Additional Information.&rdquo;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In this prospectus, unless otherwise specified or the context requires
otherwise, we use the terms &ldquo;Theriva,&rdquo; &ldquo;Company,&rdquo; &ldquo;we,&rdquo; &ldquo;us&rdquo; and &ldquo;our&rdquo; or
similar references to refer to Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc., a Nevada corporation, together with its consolidated subsidiaries.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_002"></a>Special
Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> This prospectus and the documents incorporated by reference into
this prospectus include forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section&nbsp;27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended,
or the Securities Act, and Section&nbsp;21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, that relate to future
events or our future financial performance and involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors that may cause our actual
results, levels of activity, performance or achievements to differ materially from any future results, levels of activity, performance
or achievements expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements. Words such as, but not limited to, &ldquo;anticipate,&rdquo;
 &ldquo;aim,&rdquo; &ldquo;believe,&rdquo; &ldquo;contemplate,&rdquo; &ldquo;continue,&rdquo; &ldquo;could,&rdquo; &ldquo;design,&rdquo;
 &ldquo;estimate,&rdquo; &ldquo;expect,&rdquo; &ldquo;intend,&rdquo; &ldquo;may,&rdquo; &ldquo;might,&rdquo; &ldquo;plan,&rdquo; &ldquo;predict,&rdquo;
 &ldquo;poise,&rdquo; &ldquo;project,&rdquo; &ldquo;potential,&rdquo; &ldquo;suggest,&rdquo; &ldquo;should,&rdquo; &ldquo;strategy,&rdquo;
 &ldquo;target,&rdquo; &ldquo;will,&rdquo; &ldquo;would,&rdquo; and similar expressions or phrases, or the negative of those expressions
or phrases, are intended to identify forward-looking statements, although not all forward-looking statements contain these identifying
words. Although we believe that we have a reasonable basis for each forward-looking statement contained in this prospectus and incorporated
by reference into this prospectus, we caution you that these statements are based on our projections of the future that are subject to
known and unknown risks and uncertainties and other factors that may cause our actual results, level of activity, performance or achievements
expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements, to differ. The section in this prospectus entitled &ldquo;Risk Factors&rdquo;
and the sections in our periodic reports, including the <a href="https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057825000285/tmb-20241231x10k.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K for the year ended December&nbsp;31, 2024</a> filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the &ldquo;SEC&rdquo;),
on March&nbsp;6, 2025 entitled &ldquo;Business,&rdquo; &ldquo;Risk Factors&rdquo; and &ldquo;Management&rsquo;s Discussion and Analysis
of Financial Condition and Results of Operations,&rdquo; as well as other sections in this prospectus and the documents or reports incorporated
by reference into this prospectus, discuss some of the factors that could contribute to these differences. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Please consider our forward-looking statements in light of those risks
as you read this prospectus and the documents incorporated by reference into this prospectus. It is not possible for our management to
predict all risks, nor can we assess the impact of all factors on our business or the extent to which any factor, or combination of factors,
may cause actual results to differ materially from those contained in any forward-looking statements we may make. Given these uncertainties,
you should not place undue reliance on these forward-looking statements.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">You should not assume that the information contained in this prospectus
is accurate as of any date other than as of the date of this prospectus, or that any information incorporated by reference into this
prospectus is accurate as of any date other than the date of the document so incorporated by reference. Except as required by law, we
assume no obligation to update these forward-looking statements publicly, or to update the reasons actual results could differ materially
from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements, even if new information becomes available in the future. Thus, you should
not assume that our silence over time means that actual events are bearing out as expressed or implied in such forward-looking statements.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">If one or more of these or other risks or uncertainties materializes,
or if our underlying assumptions prove to be incorrect, actual results may vary materially from what we anticipate. All subsequent written
and oral forward-looking statements attributable to us or individuals acting on our behalf are expressly qualified in their entirety
by this Note. Before purchasing any securities, you should consider carefully all of the factors set forth or referred to in this prospectus
and the documents incorporated by reference that could cause actual results to differ.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We may not actually achieve the plans, intentions or expectations
disclosed in our forward-looking statements, and you should not place undue reliance on our forward-looking statements. Forward-looking
statements should be regarded solely as our current plans, estimates and beliefs. We have included important factors in the cautionary
statements included in this document, particularly in the section entitled &ldquo;Risk Factors&rdquo; of this prospectus that we believe
could cause actual results or events to differ materially from the forward-looking statements that we make. Moreover, we operate in a
very competitive and rapidly changing environment. New risks emerge from time to time. It is not possible for our management to predict
all risks, nor can we assess the impact of all factors on our business or the extent to which any factor, or combination of factors,
may cause actual results to differ materially from those contained in any forward-looking statements we may make. Given these risks and
uncertainties, readers are cautioned not to place undue reliance on such forward-looking statements. All forward-looking statements are
qualified in their entirety by this cautionary statement. Our forward-looking statements do not reflect the potential impact of any future
acquisitions, mergers, dispositions, joint ventures or investments we may make. You should read this prospectus and the documents that
we have filed as exhibits to this prospectus and incorporated by reference herein completely and with the understanding that our actual
future results may be materially different from the plans, intentions and expectations disclosed in the forward-looking statements we
make. The forward-looking statements contained in this prospectus are made as of the date of this prospectus and we do not assume any
obligation to update any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, except as required
by applicable law.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<div style="border: Black 1pt solid; padding: 0.1in"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_003"></a>PROSPECTUS
                                            SUMMARY</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>This summary contains basic information about us and this offering.
Because it is a summary, it does not contain all of the information that you should consider before deciding to invest in our securities.
Before you decide to invest in our securities, you should read this entire prospectus carefully and the documents incorporated by reference
herein, including the information included under the heading titled &ldquo;Risk Factors.&rdquo; Unless we specify otherwise, all references
in this prospectus to &ldquo;Theriva,&rdquo; &ldquo;we,&rdquo; &ldquo;our,&rdquo; &ldquo;us&rdquo; and &ldquo;our company&rdquo; refer
to Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc.</i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Overview</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We are a diversified clinical-stage company developing therapeutics
designed to treat cancer and related diseases in areas of high unmet need. As a result of the acquisition in March&nbsp;2022 of Theriva
Biologics, S.L. (&ldquo;VCN&rdquo;, formerly named VCN Biosciences, S.L.), described in more detail below (the &ldquo;Acquisition&rdquo;),
we began transitioning our strategic focus to oncology, which is now our primary focus, through the development of VCN&rsquo;s new oncolytic
adenovirus platform designed for intravenous and intravitreal delivery to trigger tumor cell death, to improve access of co-administered
cancer therapies to the tumor, and to promote a robust and sustained anti-tumor response by the patient&rsquo;s immune system. Our lead
product candidate, VCN-01, a clinical stage oncolytic human adenovirus that is modified for tumor-selective replication and to express
an enzyme, PH20 hyaluronidase, is currently being evaluated in a Phase 2 clinical study for the treatment of pancreatic cancer (&ldquo;Virage&rdquo;),
and has recently been used to treat patients in a Phase&nbsp;1 clinical study for the treatment of retinoblastoma, and Phase 1 clinical
studies for the treatment of other solid tumors including head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Prior to the Acquisition, our focus was on developing therapeutics
designed to treat gastrointestinal (GI) diseases which included our clinical development candidates: (1)&nbsp;SYN-004 (ribaxamase) which
is designed to degrade certain commonly used intravenous (IV)&nbsp;beta-lactam antibiotics within the GI tract to prevent microbiome
damage, thereby preventing overgrowth and infection by pathogenic organisms such Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) and vancomycin
resistant Enterococci (VRE), and reducing the incidence and severity of acute graft-versus-host-disease (aGVHD) in allogeneic hematopoietic
cell transplant (HCT) recipients, and (2)&nbsp;SYN-020, a recombinant oral formulation of the enzyme intestinal alkaline phosphatase
(IAP) produced under cGMP conditions and intended to treat both local GI and systemic diseases. As part of our strategic transformation
into an oncology focused company, we are exploring value creation options for our SYN-004 and SYN-020 assets, including out-licensing
or partnering.</p>

</div>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<div style="border: Black 1pt solid; padding: 0.1in"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Our Current
                                            Product Pipeline</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="text-align: center; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><img src="tm2430478d5_s1asp1img001.jpg" alt="">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">*Based on management&rsquo;s current beliefs and expectations</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Defined terms. <b>allo-HCT </b>allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant.
<b>CSR</b> clinical study report. <b>HNSCC</b> head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. <b>IV</b> intravenous. <b>IVit</b> intravitreal.
For other abbreviations see the text.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&sup1;Additional products with preclinical proof-of-concept include
SYN-006 (carbapenemase) to prevent aGVHD, CDI, and microbiome damage in patients treated with carbapenem antibiotics and SYN-007 (ribaxamase)
DR to prevent antibiotic associated diarrhea with oral &beta;-lactam antibiotics.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&sup2;Depending on funding/partnership. SYN-004 may enter a U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (&ldquo;FDA&rdquo;)-agreed Phase 3 clinical trial for the treatment of CDI.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

</div>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Corporate Information</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Our predecessor, Sheffield Pharmaceuticals,&nbsp;Inc., was incorporated
in 1986, and in 2006 engaged in a reverse merger with Pipex Therapeutics,&nbsp;Inc., a publicly-traded Delaware corporation formed in
2001. After the reverse merger, we changed our name to Pipex Pharmaceuticals,&nbsp;Inc., and in October&nbsp;2008 we changed our name
to Adeona Pharmaceuticals,&nbsp;Inc. On October&nbsp;15, 2009, we engaged in a merger with a wholly owned subsidiary for the purpose
of reincorporating in the State of Nevada. On February&nbsp;15, 2012, we changed our name to Synthetic Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. On August&nbsp;10,
2018, we effected a one for thirty-five reverse stock split of our authorized, issued and outstanding Common Stock. On July&nbsp;15,
2022, we effected a one for ten reverse stock split of our authorized, issued and outstanding Common Stock. On October&nbsp;12, 2022,
we changed our name to Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. On August&nbsp;26, 2024, we effected a one for twenty-five reverse stock split of
our authorized, issued and outstanding Common Stock.</p>

</div>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<div style="border: Black 1pt solid; padding: 0.1in"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Our principal
                                            executive offices are located at 9605 Medical Center Drive, Suite&nbsp;270, Rockville, Maryland
                                            20850, and our telephone number is (301) 417-4367. Our website address is www.therivabio.com.
                                            Information contained on our website is intended for informational purposes only and is not
                                            incorporated by reference into this prospectus, and it should not be considered to <font style="color: Black">be
                                            part of this prospectus or the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part.
                                            The SEC maintains an internet site that contains reports, proxy and information statements,
                                            and other information regarding issuers like us that file documents electronically with the
                                            SEC. The address of the SEC website is <u>www.sec.gov</u>.</font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><font style="color: Black">&nbsp;</font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Smaller Reporting Company</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We are a &ldquo;smaller reporting company&rdquo; as defined in the
Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended (the &ldquo;Exchange Act&rdquo;). As a result, we may take advantage of certain reduced disclosure
obligations available to smaller reporting companies, including the exemption from compliance with the auditor attestation requirements
pursuant to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2022, reduced disclosure about our executive compensation arrangements and the requirements to
provide only two years of audited financial statements in our annual reports and registration statements. We will continue to be a &ldquo;smaller
reporting company&rdquo; as long as (1)&nbsp;we have a public float (i.e., the market value of our common stock held by non-affiliates)
less than $250 million calculated as of the last business day of our most recently completed second fiscal quarter, or (2)&nbsp;our annual
revenues are less than $100 million for our previous fiscal year and we have either no public float or a public float of less than $700
million as of the end of that fiscal year&rsquo;s second fiscal quarter. Decreased disclosures in our SEC filings due to our status as
a &ldquo;smaller reporting company&rdquo; may make it harder for investors to analyze our results of operations and financial prospects.</p>

</div>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_004"></a>THE
OFFERING</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top; width: 23%"> <font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt"><b>Securities
    offered by us:</b></font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top; width: 1%"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; width: 76%"> <font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif">Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;shares
    of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrants to purchase up to 8,403,361&nbsp;shares of Common Stock, or up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Pre-Funded
    Warrants to purchase shares of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrants to purchase up to 8,403,361&nbsp;shares of Common Stock
    on a reasonable &ldquo;best efforts&rdquo; basis. The shares of Common Stock or the Pre-Funded Warrants, and accompanying Common
    Warrants are immediately separable and will be issued separately in this offering, but must initially be purchased together in this
    offering. The Common Warrants are exercisable immediately, have an exercise price equal to $[</font><font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif">],
    and will expire five years after the date of issuance. This prospectus also relates to the offering of the shares of Common Stock
    issuable upon exercise of the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants. For more information regarding the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded
    Warrants, you should carefully read the section titled &ldquo;Description of Securities to be Registered&rdquo; in this prospectus.</font> </td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt"><b>Pre-funded warrants
    offered by us in this offering</b></font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">We are also offering
    to each purchaser whose purchase of shares of Common Stock in this offering would otherwise result in the purchaser, together with
    its affiliates and certain related parties, beneficially owning more than 4.99% (or, at the election of the purchaser, 9.99%) of
    our outstanding Common Stock immediately following the consummation of this offering, the opportunity to purchase, if the purchaser
    so chooses, Pre-Funded Warrants (each Pre-Funded Warrant to purchase one share of our Common Stock) in lieu of shares that would
    otherwise result in the purchaser&rsquo;s beneficial ownership exceeding 4.99% of our outstanding Common Stock (or, at the election
    of the purchaser, 9.99%). The purchase price of each Pre-Funded Warrant and accompanying Common Warrant will equal the price at which
    one share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant are being sold to the public in this offering, minus $0.001, and the exercise
    price of each Pre-Funded Warrant will be $0.001 per share. The Pre-Funded Warrants will be exercisable immediately and may be exercised
    at any time until all of the Pre-Funded Warrants are exercised in full. For each Pre-Funded Warrant we sell, the number of shares
    of Common Stock we are offering will be decreased on a one-for-one basis.</font></td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top; background-color: white">
    <td><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt"><b>Reasonable Best Efforts Offering</b></font></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">We have agreed to issue and sell the securities offered
    hereby to the purchasers through the Placement Agent. The Placement Agent is not required to buy or sell any specific number or dollar
    amount of the securities offered hereby, but will use its reasonable best efforts to solicit offers to purchase the securities offered
    by this prospectus. See &ldquo;Plan of Distribution&rdquo; beginning on page&nbsp;42 of this prospectus.</font></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>

</div>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"></p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top; width: 23%"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt"><b>Use of proceeds</b></font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top; width: 1%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; width: 76%"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> Assuming all
                                            of the securities we are offering under this prospectus are sold at an assumed public offering
                                            price of $1.19&nbsp;per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant and assuming
                                            no sale of any Pre-Funded Warrants, we estimate that we will receive approximately $8.95&nbsp;million
                                            in net proceeds from this offering, after deducting the estimated placement agent fees and
                                            estimated offering expenses. However, this is a reasonable best efforts offering with no
                                            minimum number of securities or amount of proceeds as a condition to closing, and we may
                                            not sell all or any of the securities offered pursuant to this prospectus; as a result, we
                                            may receive significantly less in net proceeds. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>
    <p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We currently intend to use the net proceeds from this offering
    primarily for working capital and general corporate purposes, including for research and development and manufacturing scale-up.
    We may also use a portion of the net proceeds to invest in or acquire other products, businesses or technologies, although we have
    no commitments or agreements with respect to any such investments or acquisitions as of the date of this prospectus. See &ldquo;<i>Use
    of Proceeds</i>&rdquo; for additional information.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p></td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt"><b>Lock-Up</b></font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Our directors and officers
                                       have agreed with the Placement Agent, subject to certain exceptions, not to sell, transfer or
                                       dispose of, directly or indirectly, any of the Common Stock or securities convertible into or
                                       exercisable or exchangeable for the Common Stock for a period of 90 days after the completion
                                       of this offering.</p>
    <p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p></td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt"><b>Standstill</b></font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have agreed, subject to
                                       certain exceptions, not to issue, enter into any agreement to issue or announce the issuance or
                                       proposed issuance of, any shares of Common Stock (or securities convertible into or exercisable
                                       for Common Stock) or, subject to certain exceptions, file any registration statement, including
                                       any amendments or supplements thereto (other than the registration statement or amendment to the
                                       registration statement relating to the securities offered hereunder and a registration statement
                                       on Form S-8), until 60 days after the completion of this offering. We have also agreed not to
                                       enter into or issuance any shares pursuant to a variable rate transaction (as defined in the securities
                                       purchase agreement) for six months after the completion of this offering, except that after the
                                       forty-five (45) day anniversary of the closing of this offering we may offer shares of Common
                                       Stock pursuant to the Amended and Restated At Market Issuance Sales Agreement dated February 9,
                                       2021, between the Company and the Placement Agent, as amended by Amendment No. 1 thereto, dated
                                       May 3, 2021, and Amendment No. 2 thereto, dated May 2, 2024 (as amended, the &ldquo;ATM Sales
                                       Agreement&rdquo;), provided that after the fifteen (15) day anniversary of the closing of this
                                       offering we may file a prospectus supplement with respect to sales under the Sales Agreement.</p>
    <p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>
    <p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">See &ldquo;Plan of Distribution&rdquo; for more information.</p></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>

</div>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"></p>

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<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top; width: 23%"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt"><b>Risk Factors</b></font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top; width: 1%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; width: 76%"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">You should
    carefully read and consider the information set forth under &ldquo;Risk Factors,&rdquo; together with all of the other information
    set forth in this prospectus, before deciding to invest in shares of the Common Stock.</font></td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: top"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt"><b>NYSE American symbol</b></font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">Our Common Stock is
    listed on the NYSE American under the symbol &ldquo;TOVX.&rdquo;</font></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> Except as otherwise indicated, the number of shares of Common Stock
to be outstanding immediately after this offering is based on 2,782,449&nbsp;shares of our Common Stock outstanding as of March&nbsp;13,
2025 and excludes the shares of Common Stock to be issued upon exercise of the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants offered in this
offering and : </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 24px"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td>
    <td><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">175,034 shares of Common Stock issuable upon the exercise
    of outstanding stock options with a weighted average exercise price of $36.88 per share;</font></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 24px"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td>
    <td><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">1,428,600 shares of Common Stock issuable upon the
    exercise of outstanding warrants to purchase Common Stock with a weighted average exercise price of $2.00 per share; and</font></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 24px"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td>
    <td><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">2,332,636 additional shares of the Common Stock reserved
    for future issuance under our equity incentive plans.</font></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>

</div>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_005"></a>RISK
FACTORS</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i></i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> <i>Our business, results of operations and financial condition
and the industry in which we operate are subject to various risks. Accordingly, investing in our securities involves a high degree of
risk. This prospectus does not describe all of those risks. You should consider the risk factors described in this prospectus below,
as well as those described under the caption &ldquo;Risk Factors&rdquo; in the documents incorporated by reference herein, including
our <a href="https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057825000285/tmb-20241231x10k.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Annual
Report on Form&nbsp;10-K for the fiscal year ended December&nbsp;31, 2024</a>, together with the other information contained or incorporated
by reference in this prospectus.</i> </p>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i></i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>We have described below and in the documents incorporated by reference
herein the most significant risk factors applicable to us, but they do not constitute all of the risks that may be applicable to us.
New risks may emerge from time to time, and it is not possible for us to predict all potential risks or to assess the likely impact of
all risks. Before making an investment decision, you should carefully consider these risks as well as other information we include or
incorporate by reference in this prospectus. This prospectus also contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties.
Our actual results could differ materially from those anticipated in the forward-looking statements as a result of a number of factors,
including the risks described below. See the section titled &ldquo;Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements.&rdquo;</i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Risks Related to Our Business</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> <b><i>Our auditor&rsquo;s report on our consolidated financial
statements contains an explanatory paragraph regarding our ability to continue as a going concern.</i></b> </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> Our consolidated financial statements as of December 31, 2024 have
been prepared under the assumption that we will continue as a going concern for the next twelve months. In addition, our independent
registered public accounting firm has issued a report that includes an explanatory paragraph referring to our recurring losses from operations
(anticipated continued losses in the future) and net capital deficiency that raise substantial doubt in our ability to continue as a
going concern without additional capital becoming available. Our ability to continue as a going concern is dependent upon our ability
to obtain additional equity or debt financing, attain further operating efficiencies, reduce expenditures, and, ultimately, to generate
revenue. Our consolidated financial statements as of December 31, 2024 did not include any adjustments that might result from the outcome
of this uncertainty. We expect that our current cash will be able to fund operations into the third quarter of 2025 but will not be sufficient
to fund operations for twelve months from the date of the filing with the SEC of our Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K for the year ended
December&nbsp;31, 2024. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>We will need to raise additional capital to operate our business
and our failure to obtain funding when needed may force us to delay, reduce or eliminate certain of our development programs or commercialization
efforts.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> During the year ended December&nbsp;31, 2024, our operating activities
used net cash of approximately $16.9 million, and as of December 31, 2024, our cash and cash equivalents were approximately $11.6 million.
With the exception of the three months ended December&nbsp;31, 2017 and June&nbsp;30, 2010, we have experienced significant losses since
inception and have a significant accumulated deficit. As of December&nbsp;31, 2024, our accumulated deficit totaled approximately $335.0
million on a consolidated basis. Pursuant to the VCN Purchase Agreement, we have agreed to use reasonable efforts to commercialize VCN-01
and we agreed as a post- closing covenant to commit to fund VCN&rsquo;s research and development programs, including but not limited
to VCN-01 PDAC phase 2 clinical trial, VCN-01 RB pivotal trial and necessary G&amp;A within a budgetary plan of approximately $27.8 million.
We expect to incur additional operating losses in the future and therefore expect our cumulative losses to increase. With the exception
of the quarter ended June&nbsp;30, 2010, and limited laboratory revenues from Adeona Clinical Laboratory, which we sold in March&nbsp;2012,
we have generated very minimal revenues. We do not expect to derive revenue from any source in the near future until we or our potential
partners successfully commercialize our products. We expect our expenses to increase in connection with our anticipated activities, particularly
as we continue research and development, initiate and conduct clinical trials, and seek marketing approval for our product candidates.
Until such time as we receive approval from the FDA and other regulatory authorities for our product candidates, we will not be permitted
to sell our products and therefore will not have product revenues from the sale of products. For the foreseeable future we will have
to fund all of our operations and capital expenditures from equity and debt offerings, cash on hand, licensing and collaboration fees
and grants, if any. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> We will need to raise additional capital, even if we raise the
maximum amount offered in this offering, to fund our operations and meet our current timelines and we cannot be certain that funding
will be available on acceptable terms on a timely basis, or at all. The amount of government funding available for grants is dependent
upon governmental budgets over which we have no control and which change with new administrations. Based on our current plans, we expect
that our cash will be able to fund operations into the third quarter of 2025 but will not be sufficient to fund our operations for the
twelve months from the date of the filing with the SEC of our Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K for the year ended December&nbsp;31, 2024
and will only be sufficient to complete our planned clinical trials of VCN-01 (in PDAC and retinoblastoma), but may not be sufficient
for additional trials of VCN-01, SYN-020 or SYN-004, or to complete the last cohort of the Phase 1a/2a clinical trial of SYN-004, which
are expected to require significant cash expenditures. In addition, based on the significant anticipated cost of a Phase 3 clinical program
in a broad indication for SYN-004, we expect it will not be feasible for us to initiate and complete this trial at this time without
a partner given the capital constraints tied to our current market cap and share price. We intend to focus our capital on our VCN-01
clinical trials and do not intend to provide further funding for our development of SYN-004 internally but intend to out-license or partner
further development of SYN-004. Further development of VCN&rsquo;s product candidates will require additional funding beyond that raised
in this offering. To the extent that we raise additional funds by issuing equity securities, our stockholders may experience significant
dilution. Any debt financing, if available, may involve restrictive covenants that may impact our ability to conduct our business and
also have a dilutive effect on our stockholders. A failure otherwise to secure additional funds when needed in the future whether through
an equity or debt financing or a sufficient amount of capital without a strategic partnership could result in us being unable to complete
planned preclinical and clinical trials or obtain approval of our product candidates from the FDA and other regulatory authorities. In
addition, we could be forced to delay, discontinue or curtail product development, forego sales and marketing efforts, and forego licensing
in attractive business opportunities. Our ability to raise capital through the sale of securities may be limited by the rules&nbsp;of
the SEC and NYSE American that place limits on the number and dollar amount of securities that may be sold. There can be no assurances
that we will be able to raise the funds needed, especially in light of the fact that our ability to sell securities registered on our
registration statement on Form&nbsp;S-3 will be limited until such time the market value of our voting securities held by non-affiliates
is $75 million or more. We also may be required to seek collaborators for our product candidates at an earlier stage than otherwise would
be desirable and on terms that are less favorable than might otherwise be available. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Risks Related to this Offering</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>We have broad discretion in the use of the net proceeds from
this offering and may not use them effectively.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We will have broad discretion in the application of the net proceeds
from this offering and could spend the proceeds in ways that do not improve our results of operations or enhance the value of the Common
Stock. Our failure to apply these funds effectively could result in financial losses that could have a material adverse effect on our
business, cause the price of our shares of Common Stock to decline and delay the development of our product candidates. Pending their
use, we may invest the net proceeds from this offering in a manner that does not produce income or that loses value.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> <b><i>You will experience immediate and substantial dilution in
the net tangible book value of the shares you purchase in this offering and may experience additional dilution in the future.</i></b> </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> &nbsp; </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> The assumed combined public offering price per share of Common
Stock and Common Warrant, and the public offering price of each Pre-Funded Warrant and Common Warrant, will be substantially higher than
the as adjusted net tangible book value per share of our Common Stock after giving effect to this offering. Assuming the sale of 8,403,361&nbsp;shares
of our Common Stock at an assumed public offering price of $1.19 per share (which is based on the closing sale price per share of our
Common Stock on the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17, 2025) and Common Warrant, assuming no sale of any Pre-Funded Warrants in this offering
and no exercise of the Common Warrants issued in this offering, and after deducting the Placement Agent fees and commissions and estimated
offering expenses payable by us, you will incur immediate dilution in as adjusted net tangible book value of approximately $0.237 per
share. As a result of the dilution to investors purchasing securities in this offering, investors may receive significantly less than
the purchase price paid in this offering, if anything, in the event of the liquidation of our company. See the section entitled &ldquo;Dilution&rdquo;
below for a more detailed discussion of the dilution you will incur if you participate in this offering. To the extent shares are issued
under outstanding options and warrants at exercise prices lower than the public offering price of our Common Stock in this offering,
you will incur further dilution. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>This is a reasonable best efforts offering, with no minimum
amount of securities required to be sold, and we may sell fewer than all of the securities offered hereby.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Placement Agent has agreed to use its reasonable best efforts
to solicit offers to purchase the securities in this offering. The Placement Agent has no obligation to buy any of the securities from
us or to arrange for the purchase or sale of any specific number or dollar amount of the securities. There is no required minimum number
of securities that must be sold as a condition to completion of this offering, and there can be no assurance that the offering contemplated
hereby will ultimately be consummated. Even if we sell securities offered hereby, because there is no minimum offering amount required
as a condition to closing of this offering, the actual offering amount is not presently determinable and may be substantially less than
the maximum amount set forth on the cover page&nbsp;of this prospectus. We may sell fewer than all of the securities offered hereby,
which may significantly reduce the amount of proceeds received by us. Thus, we may not raise the amount of capital we believe is required
for our operations in the short-term and may need to raise additional funds, which may not be available or available on terms acceptable
to us.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; text-align: left; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Because there is no minimum required for the
offering to close, investors in this offering will not receive a refund in the event that we do not sell an amount of securities sufficient
to pursue the business goals outlined in this prospectus.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have not specified a minimum offering amount nor have or will we
establish an escrow account in connection with this offering. Because there is no escrow account and no minimum offering amount, investors
could be in a position where they have invested in our company, but we are unable to fulfill our objectives due to a lack of interest
in this offering. Further, because there is no escrow account in operation and no minimum investment amount, any proceeds from the sale
of securities offered by us will be available for our immediate use, despite uncertainty about whether we would be able to use such funds
to effectively implement our business plan. Investor funds will not be returned under any circumstances whether during or after the offering.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>If the price of the Common Stock fluctuates significantly, your
investment could lose value.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Although the Common Stock is listed on the NYSE American, we cannot
assure you that an active public market will continue for the Common Stock. If an active public market for the Common Stock does not
continue, the trading price and liquidity of the Common Stock will be materially and adversely affected. If there is a thin trading market
or &ldquo;float&rdquo; for our stock, the market price for the Common Stock may fluctuate significantly more than the stock market as
a whole. Without a large float, the Common Stock would be less liquid than the stock of companies with broader public ownership and,
as a result, the trading prices of the Common Stock may be more volatile. In addition, in the absence of an active public trading market,
investors may be unable to liquidate their investment in us. Furthermore, the stock market is subject to significant price and volume
fluctuations, and the price of the Common Stock could fluctuate widely in response to several factors, including:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>our
                                            quarterly or annual operating results;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>investment
                                            recommendations by securities analysts following our business or our industry;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>additions
                                            or departures of key personnel;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>our
                                            failure to achieve operating results consistent with securities analysts&rsquo; projections;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>results
                                            of our clinical trials; and</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>changes
                                            in industry, general market or economic conditions.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The stock market has experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations
in recent years that have significantly affected the quoted prices of the securities of many companies, including companies in our industry.
The changes often appear to occur without regard to specific operating performance. The price of the Common Stock could fluctuate based
upon factors that have little or nothing to do with our company and these fluctuations could materially reduce our stock price.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>We do not intend to pay dividends on the Common Stock, so any
returns will be limited to increases, if any, in the Common Stock&rsquo;s value. Your ability to achieve a return on your investment
will depend on appreciation, if any, in the price of the Common Stock.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We currently anticipate that we will retain future earnings for the
development, operation and expansion of our business and do not anticipate declaring or paying any cash dividends for the foreseeable
future. Any future determination to declare dividends will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on, among
other factors, our financial condition, operating results, capital requirements, general business conditions and other factors that our
board of directors may deem relevant. Any return to stockholders will therefore be limited to the appreciation in the value of their
stock, if any.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>There is no public market for the Common Warrants or Pre-Funded
Warrants to purchase shares of the Common Stock being offered by us in this offering.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">There is no established public trading market for the Common Warrants
or Pre-Funded Warrants to purchase shares of the Common Stock that are being offered as part of this offering, and we do not expect a
market to develop. In addition, we do not intend to apply to list the Common Warrants or Pre-Funded Warrants on any national securities
exchange or other nationally recognized trading system, including the NYSE American. Without an active market, the liquidity of the Common
Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants will be limited.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>The Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants are speculative
in nature.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Except as specified therein, the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants
offered hereby do not confer any rights of Common Stock ownership on their holders, such as voting rights, but rather merely represent
the right to acquire shares of the Common Stock at a fixed price. Specifically, commencing on the date of issuance, holders of the Common
Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants may exercise their right to acquire the shares of the Common Stock upon the payment of an exercise price
of $[<font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font>]&nbsp;per share in the case of Common Warrants and an exercise
price of $0.001 per share in the case of Pre-Funded Warrants. Moreover, following this offering, the market value of the Common Warrants
and Pre-Funded Warrants is uncertain and there can be no assurance that the market value of the Common Warrants will equal or exceed
their imputed public offering prices. Furthermore, each Common Warrant will expire five years from the original issuance date and each
Pre-Funded Warrant will not expire until it has been exercised in full. In the event the price of the Common Stock does not exceed the
exercise price of the Common Warrants during the period when such Common Warrants are exercisable, the Common Warrants may not have any
value. There is no established public trading market for the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants being offered in this offering,
and we do not expect a market to develop. In addition, we do not intend to apply to list the Common Warrants or Pre-Funded Warrants on
any securities exchange or nationally recognized trading system, including NYSE American. Without an active market, the liquidity of
the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants will be limited.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Except as specified therein, holders of the Common Warrants
and Pre-Funded Warrants will have no rights as a common stockholder until they acquire shares of the Common Stock.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Except as specified therein, the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants
in this offering do not confer any rights of share ownership on their holders, but rather merely represent the right to acquire shares
of the Common Stock at a fixed price. Until holders of the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants acquire shares of the Common Stock
upon exercise of the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants, as applicable, holders of Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants will
have no rights with respect to our shares of Common Stock underlying such Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Provisions of the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants offered
by this prospectus could discourage an acquisition of us by a third party.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In addition to the provisions of our articles of incorporation, as
amended and our second amended and restated bylaws, certain provisions of the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants offered by this
prospectus could make it more difficult or expensive for a third party to acquire us. The Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants prohibit
us from engaging in certain transactions constituting &ldquo;fundamental transactions&rdquo; unless, among other things, the surviving
entity assumes our obligations under the Common Warrants or Pre-Funded Warrants, as applicable. These and other provisions of the Common
Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants offered by this prospectus could prevent or deter a third party from acquiring us even where the acquisition
could be beneficial to you.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>We may not receive any additional funds upon the exercise of
the Common Warrants or Pre-Funded Warrants.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Each Common Warrant and each Pre-Funded Warrant may be exercised by
way of a cashless exercise under certain circumstances, meaning that the holder may not pay a cash purchase price upon exercise, but
instead would receive upon such exercise the net number of shares of Common Stock determined according to the formula set forth in the
Common Warrant or Pre-Funded Warrant, respectively. Accordingly, we may not receive any additional funds upon the exercise of the Common
Warrants or Pre-Funded Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>If we sell Common Stock or preferred stock in the future, stockholders
may experience immediate dilution and, as a result, our stock price may decline.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We may from time-to-time issue additional shares of Common Stock or
preferred stock at a discount from the current trading price of the Common Stock. As a result, our stockholders could experience immediate
dilution upon the purchase of any shares sold at such discount. In addition, as opportunities present themselves, we may enter into financing
or similar arrangements in the future, including the issuance of debt securities, Common Stock or preferred stock. If we issue Common
Stock or securities convertible into Common Stock, the holders of the Common Stock could experience additional dilution and, as a result,
our stock price may decline. In addition, to the extent that any Common Warrants, Pre-Funded Warrants or options are exercised, new options
or restricted stock units are issued under our equity incentive plans, or we otherwise issue additional shares of Common Stock in the
future, at a price less than the public offering price, our stockholders could experience dilution.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Purchasers who purchase our securities in this offering pursuant
to a securities purchase agreement may have rights not available to purchasers that purchase without the benefit of a securities purchase
agreement.</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In addition to rights and remedies available to all purchasers in
this offering under federal securities and state law, the purchasers that enter into a securities purchase agreement will also be able
to bring claims of breach of contract against us. The ability to pursue a claim for breach of contract provides those investors with
the means to enforce the covenants uniquely available to them under the securities purchase agreement including, but not limited to:
(i)&nbsp;timely delivery of securities; (ii)&nbsp;agreement to not enter into any financings for 60 days from closing; and (iii)&nbsp;indemnification
for breach of contract.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_006"></a>USE
OF PROCEEDS</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> We estimate that we will receive net proceeds from this offering
of approximately $8.95&nbsp;million (assuming the sale of the maximum number of securities offered hereby), based upon an assumed public
offering price of $1.19&nbsp;per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant (which is the last reported sale price of the
Common Stock on the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17, 2025), after deducting the estimated Placement Agent fees and estimated offering
expenses payable by us and assuming no sale of any Pre-Funded Warrants and no exercise of the Common Warrants. However, because this
is a reasonable best efforts offering with no minimum number of securities or amount of proceeds as a condition to closing, the actual
offering amount, Placement Agent fees, and net proceeds to us are not presently determinable and may be substantially less than the maximum
amounts set forth on the cover page&nbsp;of this prospectus, and we may not sell all or any of the securities we are offering. As a result,
we may receive significantly less in net proceeds. We estimate that our net proceeds from the sale of 75%, 50%, and 25% of the maximum
number of securities offered in this offering would be approximately $6.625&nbsp;million, $4.3&nbsp;million, and $1.975&nbsp;million,
respectively, after deducting the estimated Placement Agent fees and estimated offering expenses payable by us, and assuming no sale
of any Pre-Funded Warrants and assuming no exercise of the Common Warrants. We will only receive additional proceeds from the exercise
of the Common Warrants we are selling in this offering if the Common Warrants are exercised for cash. We cannot predict when or if these
Common Warrants will be exercised. It is possible that these Common Warrant may expire and may never be exercised. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> Each $0.10 increase (decrease) in the assumed public offering price
of $1.19&nbsp;per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant (which is the last reported sale price of the Common Stock on
the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17, 2025) would increase (decrease) the net proceeds to us from this offering by approximately $782,000,
assuming the number of securities offered, as set forth on the cover page&nbsp;of this prospectus, remains the same, and after deducting
estimated offering expenses payable by us and assuming no sale of any Pre-Funded Warrants and assuming no exercise of the Common Warrants.
Each 100,000 share increase (decrease) in the number of securities offered by us in this offering would increase (decrease) the net proceeds
to us from this offering by approximately $111,000, assuming that the price per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant
for the offering remains at $1.19 (which is the last reported sale price of the Common Stock on the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17, 2025),
and after deducting the estimated offering expenses payable by us and assuming no sale of any Pre-Funded Warrants and assuming no exercise
of the Common Warrants included in the securities in the offering. Each 500,000 share increase (decrease) in the number of securities
offered by us in this offering would increase (decrease) the net proceeds to us from this offering by approximately $553,000, assuming
that the price per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant for the offering remains at $1.19 (which is the last reported
sale price of the Common Stock on the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17, 2025), and after deducting the estimated offering expenses payable
by us and assuming no exercise of the Common Warrants included in the securities in the offering. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We currently intend to use the net proceeds from this offering primarily
for working capital and general corporate purposes, including for research and development and manufacturing scale-up. We may also use
a portion of the net proceeds to invest in or acquire other products, businesses or technologies, although we have no commitments or
agreements with respect to any such investments or acquisitions as of the date of this prospectus.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">These estimates exclude the proceeds, if any, from the exercise of
Common Warrants offered hereby. If all of the Common Warrants offered hereby were to be exercised in cash at the assumed exercise price
of $[<font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font>] per share, we would receive additional proceeds of approximately $[<font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font>]
million. We cannot predict when or if these Common Warrants will be exercised. It is possible that these Common Warrants may expire and
may never be exercised. Additionally, these Common Warrants contain a cashless exercise provision that permit exercise of such Common
Warrants on a cashless basis at any time when there is no effective registration statement under the Securities Act covering the issuance
of the underlying shares.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The amounts and timing of any expenditures will vary depending on
the amount of cash generated by our operations, and the rate of growth, if any, of our business, and our plans and business conditions.
The foregoing represents our intentions as of the date of this prospectus based upon our current plans and business conditions to use
and allocate the net proceeds of the offering. However, our management will have significant flexibility and discretion in the timing
and application of the net proceeds of the offering. Unforeseen events or changed business conditions may result in application of the
proceeds of the offering in a manner other than as described in this prospectus.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">To the extent that the net proceeds we receive from the offering are
not immediately applied for the above purposes, we plan to invest the net proceeds in short-term, investment-grade, interest-bearing
instruments and U.S. government securities.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_007"></a>Dividend
Policy</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have never declared or paid any cash dividends on the Common Stock
and we do not currently intend to pay any cash dividends on the Common Stock in the foreseeable future. We expect to retain all available
funds and future earnings, if any, to fund the development and growth of our business. Any future determination to pay dividends, if
any, on the Common Stock will be at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on, among other factors, the terms of any
outstanding preferred stock, our results of operations, financial condition, capital requirements and contractual restrictions.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: bold 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-transform: uppercase; text-align: center"> <a name="va_001"></a>Capitalization </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> The following table sets forth our cash and capitalization as of
December&nbsp;31, 2024 on: </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 24px"> <font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font> </td>
    <td> an actual basis; and </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> &nbsp; </td>
    <td> &nbsp; </td>
    <td> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> &nbsp; </td>
    <td> <font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font> </td>
    <td> an as adjusted basis, after giving effect to the sale in this offering of 8,403,361&nbsp;shares of Common Stock, or up to
    8,403,361&nbsp;Pre-Funded Warrants in lieu of shares of Common Stock, at an assumed offering price of $1.19 per share of Common Stock
    and accompanying Common Warrant, which is the closing price of our Common Stock on the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17, 2025, and
    assuming the exercise in full of Pre-Funded Warrants issued in this offering and no exercise of any Common Warrants, and after deducting
    the Placement Agent fees and estimated offering expenses payable by us. </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> You should read the information in this table together with our
audited financial statements and related notes and &ldquo;Management&rsquo;s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results
of Operations&rdquo; in the Company&rsquo;s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td><td style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td colspan="6" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; border-bottom: Black 1pt solid"> As
    of December&nbsp;31, 2024 </td><td style="white-space: nowrap; padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td><td style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; border-bottom: Black 1pt solid"> Actual </td><td style="white-space: nowrap; padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold"> &nbsp; </td><td style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td colspan="2" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; border-bottom: Black 1pt solid"> As
    Adjusted<br> (Unaudited) </td><td style="white-space: nowrap; padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td colspan="6" style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: center"> (in thousands, except share and per share data) </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="width: 74%; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 2.5pt; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Cash
    and Short-Term Investments </td><td style="width: 1%; font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 2.5pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 1%; border-bottom: Black 2.5pt double; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> $ </td><td style="width: 10%; border-bottom: Black 2.5pt double; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 11,609 </td><td style="width: 1%; padding-bottom: 2.5pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="width: 1%; font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 2.5pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 1%; border-bottom: Black 2.5pt double; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> $ </td><td style="width: 10%; border-bottom: Black 2.5pt double; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 20,559 </td><td style="width: 1%; padding-bottom: 2.5pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 12.95pt"> Liabilities: </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 12.95pt"> Non-Current Liabilities </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 8,700 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 8,700 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Shareholders&rsquo;
    Equity: </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Common stock, $0.001 par value; 350,000,000
    shares authorized, 2,811,258 issued and 2,782,449 outstanding actual and 11,214,619 issued and 11,185,810 outstanding as adjusted </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 3 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 11 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Additional paid-in capital </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 355,501 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 364,443 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Treasury stock at cost, 28,809 shares </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> (288 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> ) </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> (288 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> ) </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Accumulated other comprehensive (loss)
    income </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> (1,178 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> ) </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> (1,178 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> ) </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1pt; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Accumulated deficit </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> (334,971 </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> ) </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> (334,971 </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> ) </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1pt; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Total shareholders&rsquo;
    equity </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> $ </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 19,067 </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> $ </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 28,017 </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1pt; text-indent: -0.1in; padding-left: 0.1in"> Total
    capitalization </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> $ </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 27,767 </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 1pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> $ </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 36,717 </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  </table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> A $0.10 increase or decrease in the assumed public offering price
of $1.19 per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant, which is the closing price of our Common Stock on the NYSE American
on March&nbsp;17, 2025 and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants, would increase or decrease the
as adjusted amount of each of cash, additional paid-in capital, total stockholders&rsquo; equity and total capitalization by approximately
$782,000, assuming that the number of shares of Common Stock offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains
the same and after deducting the Placement Agent fees and estimated offering expenses payable by us and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded
Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> &nbsp; </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> An increase or decrease of 500,000 shares in the number of shares
of Common Stock and Common Warrants offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded
Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants, would increase or decrease the pro forma as adjusted amount of each of cash and cash equivalents,
additional paid-in capital, total stockholders&rsquo; equity and total capitalization by approximately $553,000, assuming no change in
the assumed public offering price per share of Common Stock and Common Warrants and after deducting the Placement Agent fees and estimated
offering expenses payable by us and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> &nbsp; </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> An increase or decrease of 100,000 shares in the number of shares
of Common Stock and Common Warrants offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded
Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants, would increase or decrease the pro forma as adjusted amount of each of cash and cash equivalents,
additional paid-in capital, total stockholders&rsquo; equity and total capitalization by approximately $111,000, assuming no change in
the assumed public offering price per share of Common Stock and Common Warrants and after deducting the Placement Agent fees and estimated
offering expenses payable by us and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> The above discussion and table is based on 2,782,449&nbsp;shares
of our Common Stock outstanding as of December&nbsp;31, 2024 and excludes as of December&nbsp;31, 2024: </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 24px"> <font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font> </td>
    <td> 175,034 shares of Common Stock issuable upon the exercise of outstanding stock options with a weighted average exercise price
    of $36.88 per share; </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 24px"> <font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font> </td>
    <td> 1,428,600 shares of Common Stock issuable upon the exercise of outstanding warrants to purchase Common Stock with a weighted
    average exercise price of $2.00 per share; and </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 24px"> <font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font> </td>
    <td> 2,332,636 additional shares of the Common Stock reserved for future issuance under our equity incentive plans. </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: bold 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-transform: uppercase; text-align: center"><a name="va_002"></a> Dilution </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> Our net tangible book value as of December 31, 2024 was approximately
$1.709&nbsp;million, or $0.614 per share. Net tangible book value per share is determined by dividing our total tangible assets, less
total liabilities, by the number of shares of our Common Stock outstanding as of December&nbsp;31, 2024. Dilution with respect to net
tangible book value per share represents the difference between the amount per share paid by purchasers of shares of Common Stock in
this offering and the net tangible book value per share of our Common Stock immediately after this offering. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> &nbsp; </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> After giving effect to the sale in this offering of 8,403,361&nbsp;shares
of Common Stock, or up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Pre-Funded Warrants in lieu of shares of Common Stock, at an assumed offering price of $1.19
per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant, which is the closing price of our Common Stock on the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17,
2025, and assuming the exercise in full of Pre-Funded Warrants issued in this offering and no exercise of any Common Warrants, and after
deducting the Placement Agent fees and estimated offering expenses payable by us, our as adjusted net tangible book value as of December
31, 2024 would have been approximately $10.659 million, or $0.953 per share. This represents an immediate increase in as adjusted net
tangible book value of $0.339 per share to existing stockholders and an immediate dilution of $0.237 per share to new investors purchasing
securities in this offering. The final public offering price will be determined through negotiation between us, the Placement Agent,
and prospective investors in the offering and may be at a discount to the current market price. Therefore, the assumed public offering
price used throughout this prospectus may not be indicative of the final public offering price. The following table illustrates this
per share dilution: </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="width: 76%; font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12pt; padding-left: 12pt"> Assumed public offering price
    per share </td><td style="width: 1%; font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 1%; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="width: 10%; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td><td style="width: 1%; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="width: 1%; font-size: 10pt"> $ </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right; width: 10%"> 1.19 </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12pt; padding-left: 12pt"> Net tangible book value per share as
    of December&nbsp;31, 2024 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> $ </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 0.614 </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12pt; padding-left: 12pt"> Increase in net
    tangible book value per share attributable to this offering </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> $ </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 0.339 </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12pt; padding-left: 12pt"> As adjusted net
    tangible book value per share as of December&nbsp;31, 2024, after giving effect to this offering </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td><td style="padding-bottom: 1pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt"> $ </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 0.953 </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 2.5pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -12pt; padding-left: 12pt"> Dilution per share
    to new investors purchasing our Common Stock in this offering </td><td style="padding-bottom: 2.5pt; font-size: 10pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> &nbsp; </td><td style="padding-bottom: 2.5pt; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left"> &nbsp; </td><td style="border-bottom: Black 2.5pt double; font-size: 10pt"> $ </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 2.5pt double; font-size: 10pt; text-align: right"> 0.237 </td></tr>
</table>

<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> A $0.10 increase or decrease in the assumed public offering price
of $1.19 per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant, which is the closing price of our Common Stock on the NYSE American
on March&nbsp;17, 2025 and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants, would decrease or increase our
as adjusted net tangible book value per share by approximately $0.07 and decrease or increase the dilution per share to new investors
by approximately $0.03, assuming that the number of shares of Common Stock offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus,
remains the same and after deducting the Placement Agent fees and estimated offering expenses payable by us and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded
Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> &nbsp; </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> An increase or decrease of 500,000 shares in the number of shares
of Common Stock and Common Warrants offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded
Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants, would decrease or increase our as adjusted net tangible book value per share by approximately
$0.007 and increase or decrease the dilution per share to new investors by approximately $0.007, assuming no change in the assumed public
offering price per share of Common Stock and Common Warrants and after deducting the Placement Agent fees and estimated offering expenses
payable by us and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> &nbsp; </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> An increase or decrease of 100,000 shares in the number of shares
of Common Stock and Common Warrants offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded
Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants, would decrease or increase our as adjusted net tangible book value per share by approximately
$0.001 and increase or decrease the dilution per share to new investors by approximately $0.001, assuming no change in the assumed public
offering price per share of Common Stock and Common Warrants and after deducting the Placement Agent fees and estimated offering expenses
payable by us and assuming no sale of Pre-Funded Warrants or exercise of any Common Warrants. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> &nbsp; </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> The above discussion and table is based on 2,782,449&nbsp;shares
of our Common Stock outstanding as of December&nbsp;31, 2024 and excludes as of December&nbsp;31, 2024: </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 24px"> <font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font> </td>
    <td> 175,034 shares of Common Stock issuable upon the exercise of outstanding stock options with a weighted average exercise price
    of $36.88 per share; </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 24px"> <font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font> </td>
    <td> 1,428,600 shares of Common Stock issuable upon the exercise of outstanding warrants to purchase Common Stock with a weighted
    average exercise price of $2.00 per share; and </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 24px"> <font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font> </td>
    <td> 2,332,636 additional shares of the Common Stock reserved for future issuance under our equity incentive plans. </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> The above illustration of dilution per share to investors participating
in this offering assumes no exercise of outstanding options to purchase our Common Stock or outstanding warrants to purchase shares of
our Common Stock (other than the Pre-Funded Warrants). To the extent that any of these outstanding options or warrants are exercised
or we issue additional shares under our equity incentive plans, there will be further dilution to new investors. In addition, we may
choose to raise additional capital due to market conditions or strategic considerations even if we believe we have sufficient funds for
our current or future operating plans. To the extent that additional capital is raised through the sale of equity or convertible debt
securities, the issuance of these securities could result in further dilution to our stockholders. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_008"></a>DESCRIPTION
OF Capital Stock</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>The following is a description of the material terms of our capital
stock. This is a summary only and does not purport to be complete. It is subject to and qualified in its entirety by reference to our
Articles of Incorporation and our Bylaws, each of which are incorporated by reference as an exhibit to the registration statement of
which this prospectus forms a part. We encourage you to read our Articles of Incorporation, our Bylaws and the applicable provisions
of the Nevada Revised Statute (the &ldquo;NRS&rdquo;), for additional information.</i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Our authorized capital stock consists of:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>350,000,000
                                            shares of Common Stock, par value $0.001 per share; and</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>10,000,000
                                            shares of preferred stock, par value $0.001 per share.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Common Stock</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> <i>Outstanding Shares</i>. As of March&nbsp;13, 2025, there were
2,782,449&nbsp;shares of Common Stock outstanding. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>Voting Rights</i>. The holders of the Common Stock are entitled
to one vote for each share held of record on all matters submitted to a vote of the stockholders, including the election of directors,
and do not have cumulative voting rights. Accordingly, the holders of a majority of the shares of the Common Stock entitled to vote in
any election of directors can elect all of the directors standing for election.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>Dividend Rights</i>. Subject to preferences that may be applicable
to any then outstanding preferred stock, the holders of Common Stock are entitled to receive dividends, if any, as may be declared from
time to time by our board of directors out of legally available funds.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>Liquidation Rights</i>. In the event of our liquidation, dissolution
or winding up, holders of the Common Stock will be entitled to share ratably in the net assets legally available for distribution to
stockholders after the payment of all of our debts and other liabilities, subject to the satisfaction of any liquidation preference granted
to the holders of any then outstanding shares of preferred stock.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>Other Rights and Preferences</i>. The holders of the Common Stock
have no preemptive, conversion or subscription rights, and there are no redemption or sinking fund provisions applicable to the Common
Stock. The rights, preferences and privileges of the holders of the Common Stock are subject to, and may be adversely affected by, the
rights of the holders of shares of any series of our preferred stock that we may designate and issue in the future.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>Fully Paid and Nonassessable</i>. All of our outstanding shares
of Common Stock are fully paid and nonassessable.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Preferred Stock</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Our Board of Directors has the authority, without action by our stockholders,
to designate and issue up to 10,000,000 shares of preferred stock in one or more series or classes and to designate the rights, preferences
and privileges of each series or class, which may be greater than the rights of the Common Stock. It is not possible to state the actual
effect of the issuance of any shares of preferred stock upon the rights of holders of the Common Stock until our Board of Directors determines
the specific rights of the holders of the preferred stock. However, the effects might include:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>restricting
                                            dividends on the Common Stock;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>diluting
                                            the voting power of the Common Stock;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>impairing
                                            liquidation rights of the Common Stock; or</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>delaying
                                            or preventing a change in control of us without further action by our stockholders.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Board of Directors&rsquo; authority to issue preferred stock without
stockholder approval could make it more difficult for a third-party to acquire control of our company and could discourage such attempt.
We have 120,000 shares of preferred stock designated as Series&nbsp;A Convertible Preferred Stock, 15,723 shares of preferred stock designated
as Series&nbsp;B Convertible Preferred Stock, 275,000 shares of preferred stock designated as Series&nbsp;C Convertible Preferred Stock,
and 100,000 shares of preferred stock designated as Series&nbsp;D Convertible Preferred Stock. We currently do not have any shares of
preferred stock outstanding and have no present plans to issue any shares of preferred stock.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Anti-Takeover Effects of Nevada Law</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The provisions of NRS, our Articles of Incorporation and our Bylaws
described below may have the effect of delaying, deferring or discouraging another party from acquiring control of us.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Business Combinations</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The &ldquo;business combination&rdquo; provisions of Sections 78.411
to 78.444, inclusive, of the NRS generally prohibit a Nevada corporation with at least 200 stockholders from engaging in various &ldquo;combination&rdquo;
transactions with any interested stockholder for a period of two years after the date of the transaction in which the person became an
interested stockholder, unless the transaction is approved by the board of directors prior to the date the interested stockholder obtained
such status or the combination is approved by the board of directors and thereafter is approved at a meeting of the stockholders by the
affirmative vote of stockholders representing at least 60% of the outstanding voting power held by disinterested stockholders, and extends
beyond the expiration of the two-year period, unless:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>the
                                            combination was approved by the board of directors prior to the person becoming an interested
                                            stockholder or the transaction by which the person first became an interested stockholder
                                            was approved by the board of directors before the person became an interested stockholder
                                            or the combination is later approved by a majority of the voting power held by disinterested
                                            stockholders; or</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>if
                                            the consideration to be paid by the interested stockholder is at least equal to the highest
                                            of: (a)&nbsp;the highest price per share paid by the interested stockholder within the two
                                            years immediately preceding the date of the announcement of the combination or in the transaction
                                            in which it became an interested stockholder, whichever is higher, (b)&nbsp;the market value
                                            per share of Common Stock on the date of announcement of the combination and the date the
                                            interested stockholder acquired the shares, whichever is higher, or (c)&nbsp;for holders
                                            of preferred stock, the highest liquidation value of the preferred stock, if it is higher.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">A &ldquo;combination&rdquo; is generally defined to include mergers
or consolidations or any sale, lease exchange, mortgage, pledge, transfer, or other disposition, in one transaction or a series of transactions,
with an &ldquo;interested stockholder&rdquo; having: (a)&nbsp;an aggregate market value equal to 5% or more of the aggregate market value
of the assets of the corporation, (b)&nbsp;an aggregate market value equal to 5% or more of the aggregate market value of all outstanding
shares of the corporation, (c)&nbsp;10% or more of the earning power or net income of the corporation, and (d)&nbsp;certain other transactions
with an interested stockholder or an affiliate or associate of an interested stockholder.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In general, an &ldquo;interested stockholder&rdquo; is a person who,
together with affiliates and associates, owns (or within two years, did own) 10% or more of a corporation&rsquo;s voting stock. The statute
could prohibit or delay mergers or other takeover or change in control attempts and, accordingly, may discourage attempts to acquire
our company even though such a transaction may offer our stockholders the opportunity to sell their stock at a price above the prevailing
market price.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Control Share Acquisitions</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The &ldquo;control share&rdquo; provisions of Sections 78.378 to 78.3793,
inclusive, of the NRS apply to &ldquo;issuing corporations&rdquo; that are Nevada corporations with at least 200 stockholders, including
at least 100 stockholders of record who are Nevada residents, and that conduct business directly or indirectly in Nevada. The control
share statute prohibits an acquirer, under certain circumstances, from voting its shares of a target corporation&rsquo;s stock after
crossing certain ownership threshold percentages, unless the acquirer obtains approval of the target corporation&rsquo;s disinterested
stockholders. The statute specifies three thresholds: one-fifth or more but less than one-third, one-third but less than a majority,
and a majority or more, of the outstanding voting power. Generally, once an acquirer crosses one of the above thresholds, those shares
in an offer or acquisition and acquired within 90 days thereof become &ldquo;control shares&rdquo; and such control shares are deprived
of the right to vote until disinterested stockholders restore the right. These provisions also provide that if control shares are accorded
full voting rights and the acquiring person has acquired a majority or more of all voting power, all other stockholders who do not vote
in favor of authorizing voting rights to the control shares are entitled to demand payment for the fair value of their shares in accordance
with statutory procedures established for dissenters&rsquo; rights.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">A corporation may elect to not be governed by, or &ldquo;opt out&rdquo;
of, the control share provisions by making an election in its articles of incorporation or bylaws, provided that the opt-out election
must be in place on the 10th day following the date an acquiring person has acquired a controlling interest, that is, crossing any of
the three thresholds described above. We have not opted out of the control share statutes, and will be subject to these statutes if we
are an &ldquo;issuing corporation&rdquo; as defined in such statutes.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The effect of the Nevada control share statutes is that the acquiring
person, and those acting in association with the acquiring person, will obtain only such voting rights in the control shares as are conferred
by a resolution of the stockholders at an annual or special meeting. The Nevada control share law, if applicable, could have the effect
of discouraging takeovers of our company.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws</i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Our Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws provide that:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>the
                                            authorized number of directors is determined by our board of directors;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>directors
                                            may be removed only by the affirmative vote of the holders of at least a majority of our
                                            voting stock, whether for cause or without cause;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>our
                                            Bylaws may be amended or repealed by our board of directors or by the affirmative vote of
                                            our stockholders;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>special
                                            meetings of the stockholders may be called by Chairman of the board, if any, the Vice Chairman
                                            of the board, if any, or the President;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>our
                                            board of directors may fill vacancies on the board of directors;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>our
                                            board of directors will be authorized to issue, without stockholder approval, preferred stock,
                                            the rights of which will be determined at the discretion of the board of directors and that,
                                            if issued, could operate as a &ldquo;poison pill&rdquo; to dilute the stock ownership of
                                            a potential hostile acquirer to prevent an acquisition that our board of directors does not
                                            approve;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>our
                                            stockholders do not have cumulative voting rights, and therefore our stockholders holding
                                            a majority of the shares of Common Stock outstanding will be able to elect all of our directors;
                                            and</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>our
                                            stockholders must comply with advance notice provisions to bring business before or nominate
                                            directors for election at a stockholder meeting.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><i>Potential Effects of Authorized but Unissued Stock</i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have shares of Common Stock and preferred stock available for future
issuance without stockholder approval. We may utilize these additional shares for a variety of corporate purposes, including future public
offerings to raise additional capital, to facilitate corporate acquisitions or payment as a dividend on the capital stock.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The existence of unissued and unreserved Common Stock may enable our
board of directors to issue shares to persons friendly to current management.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Limitations of Director Liability and Indemnification of Directors,
Officers and Employees</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">NRS&nbsp;78.138 provides that directors of a corporation is not individually
liable to the corporation or its stockholders or creditors for any damages as a result of any act or failure to act in his or her capacity
as a director or officer unless: (a)&nbsp;the presumption that directors and officers acted in good faith on an informed basis with a
view toward the best interest of the corporation has been rebutted and (b)&nbsp;it is proven that:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>The
                                            director&rsquo;s or officer&rsquo;s act or failure to act constituted a breach of his or
                                            her fiduciary duties as a director or officer; and</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>such
                                            breach involved intentional misconduct, fraud or a knowing violation of law.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Our Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws provide that we will indemnify
our directors and officers to the fullest extent permitted by law and may indemnify employees and other agents. Our Articles of Incorporation
also provide that we are obligated to advance expenses incurred by a director or officer in advance of the final disposition of any action
or proceeding.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have obtained a policy of directors&rsquo; and officers&rsquo;
liability insurance.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have entered into separate indemnification agreements with our
directors and officers. These agreements, among other things, require us to indemnify our directors and officers for any and all expenses
(including reasonable attorneys&rsquo; fees, retainers, court costs, transcript costs, fees of experts, witness fees, travel expenses,
duplicating costs, printing and binding costs, telephone charges, postage, delivery service fees) judgments, fines and amounts paid in
settlement actually and reasonably incurred by such directors or officers or on his or her behalf in connection with any action or proceeding
arising out of their services as one of our directors or officers, or any of our subsidiaries or any other company or enterprise to which
the person provides services at our request provided that such person follows the procedures for determining entitlement to indemnification
and advancement of expenses set forth in the indemnification agreement. We believe that these bylaw provisions and indemnification agreements
are necessary to attract and retain qualified persons as directors and officers.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The limitation of liability and indemnification provisions in our
Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws may discourage stockholders from bringing a lawsuit against directors for breach of their fiduciary
duties. They may also reduce the likelihood of derivative litigation against directors and officers, even though an action, if successful,
might provide a benefit to us and our stockholders. Our results of operations and financial condition may be harmed to the extent we
pay the costs of settlement and damage awards against directors and officers pursuant to these indemnification provisions.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Insofar as indemnification for liabilities arising under the Securities
Act may be permitted to directors, officers or persons controlling us, we have been informed that, in the opinion of the SEC, such indemnification
is against public policy as expressed in the Securities Act and is therefore unenforceable.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">At present, there is no pending litigation or proceeding involving
any of our directors or officers as to which indemnification is required or permitted, and we are not aware of any threatened litigation
or proceeding that may result in a claim for indemnification.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Listing of the Common Stock on the NYSE American LLC</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Common Stock is listed for trading on the NYSE American LLC under
the symbol &ldquo;TOVX.&rdquo;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Transfer Agent and Registrar</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The transfer agent and registrar for the Common Stock is Equiniti
Trust Company.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Stock Options</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> As of March&nbsp;13, 2025, we had options outstanding to purchase
an aggregate of 175,034&nbsp;shares of Common Stock that were issued under our equity compensation plans. As of March&nbsp;13, 2025,
there were 2,332,636&nbsp;shares of Common Stock reserved for future issuance under our equity incentive plan. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Warrants</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> As of March&nbsp;13, 2025, we had warrants outstanding to purchase
an aggregate of 1,428,600&nbsp;shares of Common Stock with a weighted average exercise price of $2.00 per share. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_009"></a>DESCRIPTION
OF SECURITIES to be Registered</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> We are offering up to 8,403,361&nbsp;shares of Common Stock, or
Pre-Funded Warrants in lieu of shares of Common Stock, along with Common Warrants to purchase up to 8,403,361&nbsp;shares of Common Stock.
For each Pre-Funded Warrant we sell, the number of shares of Common Stock we are offering will be decreased on a one-for-one basis. Each
share of Common Stock or Pre-Funded Warrant is being sold together with a Common Warrant to purchase one share of Common Stock. The shares
of Common Stock or Pre-Funded Warrants and accompanying Common Warrants will be issued separately. We are also registering the shares
of Common Stock issuable from time to time upon exercise of the Pre-Funded Warrants offered hereby and the Common Warrants offered hereby. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Common Stock. See the description above under &ldquo;Description of
our Capital Stock- Common Stock.&rdquo;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Common Warrants to be Issued in this Offering</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The following summary of certain terms and provisions of the Common
Warrants included with the Common Stock that are being offered hereby is not complete and is subject to, and qualified in its entirety
by, the provisions of the Common Warrants, the form of which is filed as an exhibit to our registration statement of which this prospectus
forms a part.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Duration and Exercise Price</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> <font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">Each
Common Warrant offered hereby will be a warrant to purchase one share of Common Stock and will have an initial exercise price equal to
$[</font><font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font>] per share ([<font style="font-family: Symbol">&middot;</font>]% of the assumed
public offering price per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant, which is based on the closing price of the Common Stock
on the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17, 2025 of $1.19). The Common Warrants will be exercisable immediately upon issuance and will expire
five years from the date of issuance. The exercise price and number of shares of Common Stock issuable upon exercise is subject to appropriate
adjustment in the event of share dividends, share splits, reorganizations or similar events affecting the Common Stock and the exercise
price. Subject to the rules&nbsp;and regulations of the applicable trading market, we may at any time during the term of the Common Warrant,
subject to the prior written consent of the holders, reduce the then current exercise price to any amount and for any period of time
deemed appropriate by our board of directors. The Common Warrants will be issued separately from the shares of Common Stock, or the Pre-Funded
Warrants, as the case may be. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Exercisability</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Common Warrants will be exercisable, at the option of each holder,
in whole or in part, by delivering to us a duly executed exercise notice accompanied by payment in full for the number of shares of Common
Stock purchased upon such exercise (except in the case of a cashless exercise as discussed below). A holder (together with its affiliates)
may not exercise any portion of the Common Warrant to the extent that the holder would own more than 4.99% of the outstanding shares
of our common warrant immediately after exercise, except that upon at least 61&nbsp;days&rsquo; prior notice from the holder to us, the
holder may increase the amount of beneficial ownership of outstanding shares after exercising the holder&rsquo;s Common Warrants up to
9.99% of the number of our shares of Common Stock outstanding immediately after giving effect to the exercise, as such percentage ownership
is determined in accordance with the terms of the Common Warrants. Purchasers of Common Warrants in this offering may also elect prior
to the issuance of the Common Warrants to have the initial exercise limitation set at 9.99% of our outstanding shares.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Cashless Exercise</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">If, at the time a holder exercises its Common Warrants, a registration
statement registering the issuance of the shares of Common Stock underlying the Common Warrants under the Securities Act is not then
effective or available for the issuance of such shares, then in lieu of making the cash payment otherwise contemplated to be made to
us upon such exercise in payment of the aggregate exercise price and subject to the nominal value of the shares being paid up as described
below, the holder may elect instead to receive upon such exercise (either in whole or in part) the net number of shares determined according
to a formula set forth in the Common Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Fractional Shares</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">No fractional shares of Common Stock or scrip representing fractional
shares will be issued upon the exercise of the Common Warrants. Rather, the number of shares of Common Stock to be issued will, at our
election, either be rounded up to the next whole share or we will pay a cash adjustment in respect of such final fraction in an amount
equal to such fraction multiplied by the exercise price.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Transferability</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Subject to applicable laws, a Common Warrant may be transferred at
the option of the holder upon surrender of the Common Warrant to us together with the appropriate instruments of transfer and funds sufficient
to pay any transfer taxes payable upon such transfer.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Trading Market</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">There is no trading market available for the Common Warrants on any
securities exchange or nationally recognized trading system, and we do not expect a trading market to develop. We do not intend to list
the Common Warrants on any securities exchange or nationally recognized trading market. Without a trading market, the liquidity of the
Common Warrants will be extremely limited. The shares of Common Stock issuable upon exercise of the Common Warrants are currently traded
on the NYSE American.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Right as a Stockholder</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Except as otherwise provided in the Common Warrants or by virtue of
such holder&rsquo;s ownership of Common Stock, the holders of the Common Warrants do not have the rights or privileges of holders of
shares of Common Stock, including any voting rights, until they exercise their Common Warrants. The Common Warrants will provide that
holders have the right to participate in distributions or dividends paid on Common Stock.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Fundamental Transaction</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In the event of a fundamental transaction, as described in the Common
Warrants and generally including (i)&nbsp;our merger or consolidation with or into another person, (ii)&nbsp;the sale, lease, license,
assignment, transfer, conveyance or other disposition of all or substantially all of our assets, (iii)&nbsp;any purchase offer, tender
offer or exchange offer pursuant to which holders of our Common Stock are permitted to sell, tender or exchange their shares for other
securities, cash or property and has been accepted by the holders of 50% or more of our outstanding Common Stock or 50% or more of the
voting power of our common equity, (iv)&nbsp;any reclassification, reorganization or recapitalization of our shares of Common Stock or
any compulsory share exchange or (v)&nbsp;any stock or share purchase agreement or other business combination with another person or
group of persons whereby such other person or group acquires 50% or more of our outstanding shares of Common Stock or 50% or more of
the voting power of our common equity, the holders will be entitled to receive the number of shares of the Common Stock for which the
Common Warrant is exercisable immediately prior to the occurrence of such fundamental transaction. Notwithstanding the foregoing, in
the event of a fundamental transaction, the holders of the Common Warrants have the right to require us or a successor entity to redeem
the Common Warrants for cash in the amount of the Black Scholes Value (as defined in each warrant) of the unexercised portion of the
Common Warrants concurrently with or within 30 days following the consummation of a fundamental transaction.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">However, in the event of a fundamental transaction which is not in
our control, including a fundamental transaction not approved by our board of directors, the holders of the Common Warrants will only
be entitled to receive from us or our successor entity, as of the date of consummation of such fundamental transaction the same type
or form of consideration (and in the same proportion), at the Black Scholes Value of the unexercised portion of the Common Warrant that
is being offered and paid to the holders of the Common Stock in connection with the fundamental transaction, whether that consideration
is in the form of cash, stock or any combination of cash and stock, or whether the holders of the Common Stock are given the choice to
receive alternative forms of consideration in connection with the fundamental transaction.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Pre-Funded Warrants to be Issued in this Offering</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The following summary of certain terms and provisions of the Pre-Funded
Warrants that are being offered hereby is not complete and is subject to, and qualified in its entirety by, the provisions of the Pre-Funded
Warrant, the form of which is filed as an exhibit to our registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part. Prospective investors
should carefully review the terms and provisions of the form of Pre-Funded Warrant for a complete description of the terms and conditions
of the Pre-Funded Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Duration and Exercise Price</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Each Pre-Funded Warrant offered hereby will have an initial exercise
price per share equal to $0.001. The Pre-Funded Warrants will be immediately exercisable and will expire when exercised in full. The
exercise price and number of shares of Common Stock issuable upon exercise is subject to appropriate adjustment in the event of share
dividends, share splits, reorganizations or similar events affecting our shares of Common Stock and the exercise price. Subject to the
rules&nbsp;and regulations of the applicable trading market, we may at any time during the term of the Pre-Funded Warrant, subject to
the prior written consent of the holders, reduce the then current exercise price to any amount and for any period of time deemed appropriate
by our board of directors. The Pre-Funded Warrants will be issued separately from the common warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Exercisability</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Pre-Funded Warrants will be exercisable, at the option of each
holder, in whole or in part, by delivering to us a duly executed exercise notice accompanied by payment in full for the number of shares
of Common Stock purchased upon such exercise (except in the case of a cashless exercise as discussed below). A holder (together with
its affiliates) may not exercise any portion of the Pre-Funded Warrant to the extent that the holder would own more than 4.99% of the
outstanding shares of the Common Stock immediately after exercise, except that upon at least 61&nbsp;days&rsquo; prior notice from the
holder to us, the holder may increase the amount of beneficial ownership of outstanding shares after exercising the holder&rsquo;s Pre-Funded
Warrants up to 9.99% of the number of our shares outstanding immediately after giving effect to the exercise, as such percentage ownership
is determined in accordance with the terms of the Pre-Funded Warrants. Purchasers of Pre-Funded Warrants in this offering may also elect
prior to the issuance of the Pre-Funded Warrants to have the initial exercise limitation set at 9.99% of our outstanding shares of Common
Stock.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Cashless Exercise</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">If, at the time a holder exercises its Pre-Funded Warrants, a registration
statement registering the issuance of the shares of Common Stock underlying the Pre-Funded Warrants under the Securities Act is not then
effective or available for the issuance of such shares, then in lieu of making the cash payment otherwise contemplated to be made to
us upon such exercise in payment of the aggregate exercise price, the holder may elect instead to receive upon such exercise (either
in whole or in part) the net number of shares of Common Stock determined according to a formula set forth in the Pre-Funded Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Fractional Shares</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">No fractional shares of Common Stock or scrip representing fractional
shares will be issued upon the exercise of the Pre-Funded Warrants. Rather, the number of shares of Common Stock to be issued will, at
our election, either be rounded up to the next whole share or we will pay a cash adjustment in respect of such final fraction in an amount
equal to such fraction multiplied by the exercise price.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Transferability</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Subject to applicable laws, a Pre-Funded Warrant may be transferred
at the option of the holder upon surrender of the Pre-Funded Warrant to us together with the appropriate instruments of transfer and
funds sufficient to pay any transfer taxes payable upon such transfer.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Trading Market</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">There is no trading market available for the Pre-Funded Warrants on
any securities exchange or nationally recognized trading system, and we do not expect a trading market to develop. We do not intend to
list the Pre-Funded Warrants on any securities exchange or nationally recognized trading market. Without a trading market, the liquidity
of Pre-Funded Warrants will be extremely limited. The shares of Common Stock issuable upon exercise of the Pre-Funded Warrants are currently
traded on the NYSE American.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Right as a Stockholder</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Except as otherwise provided in the Pre-Funded Warrants or by virtue
of such holder&rsquo;s ownership of Common Stock, the holders of the Pre-Funded Warrants do not have the rights or privileges of holders
of the Common Stock, including any voting rights, until they exercise their Pre-Funded Warrants. The Pre-Funded Warrants will provide
that holders have the right to participate in distributions or dividends paid on Common Stock.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Fundamental Transaction</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In the event of a fundamental transaction, as described in the Pre-Funded
Warrants and generally including (i)&nbsp;our merger or consolidation with or into another person, (ii)&nbsp;the sale, lease, license,
assignment, transfer, conveyance or other disposition of all or substantially all of our assets, (iii)&nbsp;any purchase offer, tender
offer or exchange offer pursuant to which holders of the Common Stock are permitted to sell, tender or exchange their shares for other
securities, cash or property and has been accepted by the holders of 50% or more of our outstanding Common Stock or 50% or more of the
voting power of our common equity, (iv)&nbsp;any reclassification, reorganization or recapitalization of our shares of Common Stock or
any compulsory share exchange or (v)&nbsp;any stock or share purchase agreement or other business combination with another person or
group of persons whereby such other person or group acquires 50% or more of our outstanding shares of Common Stock or 50% or more of
the voting power of our common equity, the holders of the Pre-Funded Warrants will be entitled to receive upon exercise of the Pre-Funded
Warrants the kind and amount of securities, cash or other property that the holders would have received had they exercised the Pre-Funded
Warrants immediately prior to such fundamental transaction.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_010"></a>MATERIAL
UNITED STATES FEDERAL INCOME TAX CONSIDERATIONS</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The following discussion describes the material U.S. federal income
tax consequences of the acquisition, ownership and disposition of the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants and Common Warrants acquired
in this Offering. This discussion is based on the current provisions of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, referred to as
the Code, existing and proposed U.S. Treasury regulations promulgated thereunder, and administrative rulings and court decisions in effect
as of the date hereof, all of which are subject to change at any time, possibly with retroactive effect. No ruling has been or will be
sought from the Internal Revenue Service, or IRS, with respect to the matters discussed below, and there can be no assurance the IRS
will not take a contrary position regarding the tax consequences of the acquisition, ownership or disposition of the Common Stock, Pre-Funded
Warrants or Common Warrants, or that any such contrary position would not be sustained by a court.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We assume in this discussion that the shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded
Warrants and Common Warrants will be held as capital assets (generally, property held for investment). This discussion does not address
all aspects of U.S. federal income taxes, does not discuss the potential application of the Medicare contribution tax or the alternative
minimum tax and does not address state or local taxes or U.S. federal gift and estate tax laws, except as specifically provided below
with respect to non-U.S. holders, or any non-U.S. tax consequences that may be relevant to holders in light of their particular circumstances.
This discussion also does not address the special tax rules&nbsp;applicable to particular holders, such as:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>persons
                                            who acquired the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants s as compensation for
                                            services;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>traders
                                            in securities that elect to use a mark-to-market method of accounting for their securities
                                            holdings;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>persons
                                            that own, or are deemed to own, more than 5% of the Common Stock (except to the extent specifically
                                            set forth below);</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>persons
                                            required for U.S. federal income tax purposes to conform the timing of income accruals to
                                            their financial statements under Section&nbsp;451(b)&nbsp;of the Code (except to the extent
                                            specifically set forth below);</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>persons
                                            for whom the Common Stock constitutes &ldquo;qualified small business stock&rdquo; within
                                            the meaning of Section&nbsp;1202 of the Code or &ldquo;Section&nbsp;1244 stock&rdquo; for
                                            purposes of Section&nbsp;1244 of the Code;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>persons
                                            deemed sell the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants under the constructive
                                            sale provisions of the Code;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>banks
                                            or other financial institutions;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>brokers
                                            or dealers in securities or currencies;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>tax-exempt
                                            organizations or tax-qualified retirement plans;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>pension
                                            plans;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>regulated
                                            investment companies or real estate investment trusts;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>persons
                                            that hold the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants as part of a straddle,
                                            hedge, conversion transaction, synthetic security or other integrated investment;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>insurance
                                            companies;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>controlled
                                            foreign corporations, passive foreign investment companies, or corporations that accumulate
                                            earnings to avoid U.S. federal income tax; and</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>certain
                                            U.S. expatriates, former citizens, or long-term residents of the United States.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In addition, this discussion does not address the tax treatment of
partnerships (including any entity or arrangement classified as a partnership for U.S. federal income tax purposes) or other pass-through
entities or persons who hold shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants through such partnerships or other entities
which are pass-through entities for U.S. federal income tax purposes. If such a partnership or other pass-through entity holds shares
of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants, the treatment of a partner in such partnership or investor in such other pass-through
entity generally will depend on the status of the partner or investor and upon the activities of the partnership or other pass-through
entity. A partner in such a partnership and an investor in such other pass-through entity that will hold shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded
Warrants or Common Warrants should consult his, her or its own tax advisor regarding the tax consequences of the ownership and disposition
of shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants through such partnership or other pass-through entity, as applicable.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>This discussion of U.S. federal income tax considerations is for
general information purposes only and is not tax advice. Prospective investors should consult their own tax advisors regarding the U.S.
federal, state, local and non-U.S. income and other tax considerations of acquiring, holding and disposing of the Common Stock, Pre-Funded
Warrants and Common Warrants.</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">For the purposes of this discussion, a &ldquo;U.S. Holder&rdquo; means
a beneficial owner of shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants that is for U.S. federal income tax purposes (a)&nbsp;an
individual citizen or resident of the United States, (b)&nbsp;a corporation (or other entity taxable as a corporation for U.S. federal
income tax purposes), created or organized in or under the laws of the United States, any state thereof or the District of Columbia,
(c)&nbsp;an estate the income of which is subject to U.S. federal income taxation regardless of its source, or (d)&nbsp;a trust if it
(1)&nbsp;is subject to the primary supervision of a court within the United States and one or more U.S. persons (within the meaning of
Section&nbsp;7701(a)(30) of the Code) has the authority to control all substantial decisions of the trust or (2)&nbsp;has a valid election
in effect under applicable U.S. Treasury regulations to be treated as a domestic trust. A &ldquo;Non-U.S. Holder&rdquo; is, for U.S.
federal income tax purposes, a beneficial owner of shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants that is not a U.S.
Holder or a partnership for U.S. federal income tax purposes.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Potential Acceleration of Income</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Under tax legislation signed into law in December&nbsp;2017 commonly
known as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, U.S. Holders that use an accrual method of accounting for tax purposes and have certain financial
statements generally will be required to include certain amounts in income no later than the time such amounts are taken into account
as revenue in such financial statements.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In addition, under the Inflation Reduction Act signed into law on
August&nbsp;16, 2022, certain large corporations (generally, corporations reporting at least $1 billion average adjusted pre-tax net
income on their consolidated financial statements) are potentially subject to a 15% alternative minimum tax on the &ldquo;adjusted financial
statement income&rdquo; of such large corporations for tax years beginning after December&nbsp;31, 2022. The U.S. Treasury Department,
the IRS, and other standard-setting bodies are expected to issue guidance on how the alternative minimum tax provisions of the Inflation
Reduction Act will be applied or otherwise administered.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The application of these rules&nbsp;thus may require the accrual of
income earlier than would be the case under the general tax rules&nbsp;described below, although the precise application of these rules&nbsp;is
unclear at this time. U.S. Holders that use an accrual method of accounting should consult with their tax advisors regarding the potential
applicability of this legislation to their particular situation.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Treatment of Pre-Funded Warrants</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Although it is not entirely free from doubt, a pre-funded warrant
should be treated as a share of Common Stock for U.S. federal income tax purposes and a holder of Pre-Funded Warrants should generally
be taxed in the same manner as a holder of Common Stock, as described below. Accordingly, no gain or loss should be recognized upon the
exercise of a Pre-Funded Warrant and, upon exercise, the holding period of a Pre-Funded Warrant should carry over to the share of Common
Stock received. Similarly, the tax basis of the Pre-Funded Warrant should carry over to the share of Common Stock received upon exercise,
increased by the exercise price of $0.001 per share. Each holder should consult his, her or its own tax advisor regarding the risks associated
with the acquisition of Pre-Funded Warrants pursuant to this Offering (including potential alternative characterizations). The balance
of this discussion generally assumes that the characterization described above is respected for U.S. federal income tax purposes.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Allocation of Purchase Price</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">For U.S. federal income tax purposes, each share of Common Stock (or,
in lieu of Common Stock, each Pre-Funded Warrant t) and the accompanying Common Warrants issued pursuant to this offering will be treated
as an &ldquo;investment unit&rdquo; each of which consisting of one share of Common Stock or one Pre-Funded Warrant (which, as described
above, should generally be treated as a share of Common Stock for U.S. federal income tax purposes), as applicable and the accompanying
Common Warrant to acquire one share of Common Stock. The purchase price for each investment unit will be allocated between these components
in proportion to their relative fair market values at the time the unit is purchased by the holder. This allocation of the purchase price
for each unit will establish the holder&rsquo;s initial tax basis for U.S. federal income tax purposes in the share of Common Stock (or,
in lieu of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrant) and the common warrant included in each unit. The separation of the share of Common Stock
(or, in lieu of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrant) and the Common Warrant included in a unit should not be a taxable event for U.S. federal
income tax purposes. Each holder should consult his, her or its own tax advisor regarding the allocation of the purchase price between
the Common Stock (or, in lieu of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants) and the Common Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Tax Considerations Applicable to U.S. Holders</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Exercise and Expiration of Common Warrants</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Except as discussed below with respect to the cashless exercise of
a Common Warrant, a U.S. Holder generally will not recognize gain or loss for U.S. federal income tax purposes upon exercise of a Common
Warrant. The U.S. Holder will take a tax basis in the shares acquired on the exercise of a Common Warrant equal to the exercise price
of the Common Warrant, increased by the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s adjusted tax basis in the Common Warrant exercised (as determined pursuant
to the rules&nbsp;discussed above). The U.S. Holder&rsquo;s holding period in the shares of Common Stock acquired on the exercise of
a Common Warrant will begin on the date of exercise or possibly the day after such exercise, and will not include any period for which
the U.S. Holder held the Common Warrant.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The lapse or expiration of a Common Warrant will be treated as if
the U.S. Holder sold or exchanged the Common Warrant and recognized a capital loss equal to the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s tax basis in the
Common Warrant. The deductibility of capital losses is subject to limitations.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The tax consequences of a cashless exercise of a Common Warrant are
not clear under current tax law. A cashless exercise may be tax-free, either because the exercise is not a realization event or because
the exercise is treated as a recapitalization for U.S. federal income tax purposes. In either tax-free situation, a U.S. Holder&rsquo;s
tax basis in the Common Stock received generally would equal the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s tax basis in the Common Warrants. If the cashless
exercise was not a realization event, it is unclear whether a U.S. Holder&rsquo;s holding period for the Common Stock would be treated
as commencing on the date of exercise of the Common Warrant or the day following the date of exercise of the Common Warrant. If the cashless
exercise were treated as a recapitalization, the holding period of the Common Stock would include the holding period of the Common Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">It is also possible that a cashless exercise could be treated as a
taxable exchange in which gain or loss would be recognized. In such event, a U.S. Holder could be deemed to have surrendered Common Warrants
having an aggregate fair market value equal to the exercise price for the total number of Common Warrants to be exercised. The U.S. Holder
would recognize capital gain or loss in an amount equal to the difference between the fair market value of the Common Stock received
in respect of the Common Warrants deemed surrendered and the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s tax basis in such Common Warrants. Such gain or loss
would be long-term or short-term, depending on the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s holding period in the Common Warrants deemed surrendered. In this
case, a U.S. Holder&rsquo;s tax basis in the Common Stock received would equal the sum of the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s initial investment
in the exercised Common Warrants (i.e., the portion of the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s purchase price for the investment unit that is allocated
to the common warrants, as described above under &ldquo;Allocation of Purchase Price&rdquo;) and the exercise price of such Common Warrants.
It is unclear whether a U.S. Holder&rsquo;s holding period for the Common Stock would commence on the date of exercise of the Common
Warrant or the day following the date of exercise of the Common Warrant. There may also be alternative characterizations of any such
taxable exchange that would result in similar tax consequences, except that a U.S. Holder&rsquo;s gain or loss would be short-term. Due
to the absence of authority on the U.S. federal income tax treatment of a cashless exercise, there can be no assurance which, if any,
of the alternative tax consequences and holding periods described above would be adopted by the IRS or a court of law. Accordingly, U.S.
Holders should consult their tax advisors regarding the tax consequences of a cashless exercise of the Common Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Distributions</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">As discussed above, we currently anticipate that we will retain future
earnings, if any, to finance the growth and development of our business and do not intend to pay cash dividends in respect of shares
of Common Stock in the foreseeable future. In the event that we do make distributions on the Common Stock to a U.S. Holder, those distributions
generally will constitute dividends for U.S. tax purposes to the extent paid out of our current or accumulated earnings and profits (as
determined under U.S. federal income tax principles). Distributions in excess of our current and accumulated earnings and profits will
constitute a return of capital that is applied against and reduces, but not below zero, a U.S. Holder&rsquo;s adjusted tax basis in the
Common Stock. Any remaining excess will be treated as gain realized on the sale or exchange of shares of Common Stock as described below
under the section titled &ldquo;&mdash;Disposition of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants.&rdquo;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Certain Adjustments to Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The number of shares of Common Stock issued upon the exercise of the
Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants and the exercise price of Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants are subject to adjustment in
certain circumstances. Adjustments (or failure to make adjustments) that have the effect of increasing a U.S. Holder&rsquo;s proportionate
interest in our assets or earnings and profits may, in some circumstances, result in a constructive distribution to the U.S. Holder.
Adjustments to the conversion rate made pursuant to a bona fide reasonable adjustment formula which has the effect of preventing the
dilution of the interest of the holders of Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants generally should not be deemed to result in a constructive
distribution. If an adjustment is made that does not qualify as being made pursuant to a bona fide reasonable adjustment formula, a U.S.
Holder of Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants may be deemed to have received a constructive distribution from us, even though such
U.S. Holder has not received any cash or property as a result of such adjustment. The tax consequences of the receipt of a distribution
from us are described above under &ldquo;Distributions.&rdquo;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Disposition of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Upon a sale or other taxable disposition (other than a redemption
treated as a distribution, which will be taxed as described above under &ldquo;Distributions&rdquo;) of shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded
Warrants or Common Warrants, a U.S. Holder generally will recognize capital gain or loss in an amount equal to the difference between
the amount realized and the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s adjusted tax basis in the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants sold.
Capital gain or loss will constitute long-term capital gain or loss if the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s holding period for the Common Stock, Pre-Funded
Warrants or Common Warrants exceeds one year. The deductibility of capital losses is subject to certain limitations. U.S. Holders who
recognize losses with respect to a disposition of shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants should consult their
own tax advisors regarding the tax treatment of such losses.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Information Reporting and Backup Reporting</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Information reporting requirements generally will apply to payments
of distributions (including constructive distributions) on the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants and Common Warrants and to the proceeds
of a sale or other disposition of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants and Common Warrants paid by us to a U.S. Holder unless such U.S.
Holder is an exempt recipient, such as a corporation. Backup withholding will apply to those payments if the U.S. Holder fails to provide
the holder&rsquo;s taxpayer identification number, or certification of exempt status, or if the holder otherwise fails to comply with
applicable requirements to establish an exemption.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Backup withholding is not an additional tax. Rather, any amounts withheld
under the backup withholding rules&nbsp;will be allowed as a refund or a credit against the U.S. Holder&rsquo;s U.S. federal income tax
liability provided the required information is timely furnished to the IRS. U.S. Holders should consult their own tax advisors regarding
their qualification for exemption from information reporting and backup withholding and the procedure for obtaining such exemption.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Tax Considerations Applicable to Non-U.S. Holders</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Exercise and Expiration of Common Warrants</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In general, a Non-U.S. Holder will not recognize gain or loss for
U.S. federal income tax purposes upon the exercise of Common Warrants into shares of Common Stock, however, to the extent a cashless
exercise results in a taxable exchange, the consequences would be similar to those described in the discussion below under &ldquo;Disposition
of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants.&rdquo;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The expiration of a Common Warrant will be treated as if the Non-U.S.
Holder sold or exchanged Common Warrant and recognized a capital loss equal to the Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s tax basis in the common warrants.
However, a Non-U.S. Holder will not be able to utilize a loss recognized upon expiration of a Common Warrant against the Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s
U.S. federal income tax liability unless the loss is effectively connected with the Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s conduct of a trade or business
within the United States (and, if an income tax treaty applies, is attributable to a permanent establishment or fixed base in the United
States) or is treated as a U.S.-source loss and the Non-U.S. Holder is present 183 days or more in the taxable year of disposition and
certain other conditions are met.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Certain Adjustments to Warrants</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">As described under &ldquo;&mdash;U.S. Holders&mdash;Certain Adjustments
to Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants,&rdquo; an adjustment to the Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants could result in a constructive
distribution to a Non-U.S. Holder, which would be treated as described under &ldquo;Distributions&rdquo; below. Any resulting withholding
tax attributable to deemed dividends would be collected from other amounts payable or distributable to the Non-U.S. Holder. Non-U.S.
Holders should consult their tax advisors regarding the proper treatment of any adjustments to the Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In addition, regulations governing &ldquo;dividend equivalents&rdquo;
under Section&nbsp;871(m)&nbsp;of the Code may apply to the Pre-Funded Warrants. Under those regulations, an implicit or explicit payment
under Pre-Funded Warrants that references a dividend distribution on the Common Stock would possibly be taxable to a Non-U.S. Holder
as described under &ldquo;Distributions&rdquo; below. Such dividend equivalent amount would be taxable and subject to withholding whether
or not there is actual payment of cash or other property, and the Company may satisfy any withholding obligations it has in respect of
the Pre-Funded Warrants by withholding from other amounts due to the Non-U.S. Holder. Non-U.S. Holders are encouraged to consult their
own tax advisors regarding the application of Section&nbsp;871(m)&nbsp;of the Code to the Pre-Funded Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Distributions</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">As discussed above, we currently anticipate that we will retain future
earnings, if any, to finance the growth and development of our business and do not intend to pay cash dividends in respect of the Common
Stock in the foreseeable future. In the event that we do make distributions on the Common Stock to a Non-U.S. Holder, those distributions
generally will constitute dividends for U.S. federal income tax purposes as described in &ldquo;&mdash;U.S. Holders&mdash;Distributions.&rdquo;
To the extent those distributions do not constitute dividends for U.S. federal income tax purposes (i.e., the amount of such distributions
exceeds both our current and our accumulated earnings and profits), they will constitute a return of capital and will first reduce a
Non-U.S. Holder's basis in the Common Stock (determined separately with respect to each share of Common Stock), but not below zero, and
then will be treated as gain from the sale of that share Common Stock as described below under the section titled &ldquo;&mdash;Disposition
of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants.&rdquo;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Any distribution (including constructive distributions) on shares
of Common Stock that is treated as a dividend paid to a Non-U.S. Holder that is not effectively connected with the holder&rsquo;s conduct
of a trade or business in the United States will generally be subject to withholding tax at a 30% rate or such lower rate as may be specified
by an applicable income tax treaty between the United States and the Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s country of residence. To obtain a reduced
rate of withholding under a treaty, a Non-U.S. Holder generally will be required to provide the applicable withholding agent with a properly
executed IRS Form&nbsp;W-8BEN,&nbsp;IRS Form&nbsp;W-8BEN-E or other appropriate form, certifying the Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s entitlement
to benefits under that treaty. Such form must be provided prior to the payment of dividends and must be updated periodically. If a Non-U.S.
Holder holds stock through a financial institution or other agent acting on the holder&rsquo;s behalf, the holder will be required to
provide appropriate documentation to such agent. The holder&rsquo;s agent may then be required to provide certification to the applicable
withholding agent, either directly or through other intermediaries. If you are eligible for a reduced rate of U.S. withholding tax under
an income tax treaty, you should consult with your own tax advisor to determine if you are able to obtain a refund or credit of any excess
amounts withheld by timely filing an appropriate claim for a refund with the IRS.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We generally are not required to withhold tax on dividends paid (or
constructive dividends deemed paid) to a Non-U.S. Holder that are effectively connected with the holder&rsquo;s conduct of a trade or
business within the United States (and, if required by an applicable income tax treaty, are attributable to a permanent establishment
or fixed base that the holder maintains in the United States) if a properly executed IRS Form&nbsp;W-8ECI, stating that the dividends
are so connected, is furnished to us (or, if stock is held through a financial institution or other agent, to the applicable withholding
agent). In general, such effectively connected dividends will be subject to U.S. federal income tax on a net income basis at the regular
tax rates applicable to U.S. persons. A corporate Non-U.S. Holder receiving effectively connected dividends may also be subject to an
additional &ldquo;branch profits tax,&rdquo; which is imposed, under certain circumstances, at a rate of 30% (or such lower rate as may
be specified by an applicable treaty) on the corporate Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s effectively connected earnings and profits, subject to
certain adjustments.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">See also the sections below titled &ldquo;&mdash;Backup Withholding
and Information Reporting&rdquo; and &ldquo;&mdash;Foreign Accounts&rdquo; for additional withholding rules&nbsp;that may apply to dividends
paid to certain foreign financial institutions or non-financial foreign entities.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Disposition of Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Subject to the discussions below under the sections titled &ldquo;&mdash;Backup
Withholding and Information Reporting&rdquo; and &ldquo;&mdash;Foreign Accounts,&rdquo; a Non-U.S. Holder generally will not be subject
to U.S. federal income or withholding tax with respect to gain recognized on a sale or other disposition (other than a redemption treated
as a distribution, which will be taxable as described above under &ldquo;Distributions&rdquo;) of shares of Common Stock, Pre-Funded
Warrants or Common Warrants unless:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>the
                                            gain is effectively connected with the Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s conduct of a trade or business
                                            in the United States, and if an applicable income tax treaty so provides, the gain is attributable
                                            to a permanent establishment or fixed base maintained by the Non-U.S. Holder in the United
                                            States; in these cases, the Non-U.S. Holder will be taxed on a net income basis at the regular
                                            tax rates and in the manner applicable to U.S. persons, and if the Non-U.S. Holder is a corporation,
                                            an additional branch profits tax at a rate of 30%, or a lower rate as may be specified by
                                            an applicable income tax treaty, may also apply;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>the
                                            Non-U.S. Holder is a nonresident alien present in the United States for 183 days or more
                                            in the taxable year of the disposition and certain other requirements are met, in which case
                                            the Non-U.S. Holder will be subject to a 30% tax (or such lower rate as may be specified
                                            by an applicable income tax treaty between the United States and such holder&rsquo;s country
                                            of residence) on the net gain derived from the disposition, which may be offset by certain
                                            U.S.-source capital losses of the Non-U.S. Holder, if any; or</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>the
                                            Common Stock constitutes a U.S. real property interest because we are, or have been at any
                                            time during the five-year period preceding such disposition (or the Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s
                                            holding period of the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants, if shorter),
                                            a &ldquo;U.S. real property holding corporation,&rdquo; unless the Common Stock is regularly
                                            traded on an established securities market, as defined by applicable Treasury Regulations,
                                            and the Non-U.S. Holder held no more than 5% of our outstanding Common Stock, directly or
                                            indirectly, during the shorter of the five-year period ending on the date of the disposition
                                            or the period that the Non-U.S. Holder held the Common Stock. Special rules&nbsp;may apply
                                            to the determination of the 5% threshold in the case of a holder of Pre-Funded Warrants or
                                            Common Warrants. Non-U.S. Holders are urged to consult their own tax advisors regarding the
                                            effect of holding Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants on the calculation of such 5% threshold.
                                            Generally, a corporation is a &ldquo;U.S. real property holding corporation&rdquo; if the
                                            fair market value of its &ldquo;U.S. real property interests&rdquo; (as defined in the Code
                                            and applicable regulations) equals or exceeds 50% of the sum of the fair market value of
                                            its worldwide real property interests plus its other assets used or held for use in a trade
                                            or business. Although there can be no assurance, we believe that we are not currently, and
                                            we do not anticipate becoming, a &ldquo;U.S. real property holding corporation&rdquo; for
                                            U.S. federal income tax purposes. No assurance can be provided that the Common Stock will
                                            be regularly traded on an established securities market for purposes of the rules&nbsp;described
                                            above. Non-U.S. Holders are urged to consult their own tax advisors regarding the U.S. federal
                                            income tax considerations that could result if we are, or become a &ldquo;U.S. real property
                                            holding corporation.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">See the sections titled &ldquo;&mdash;Backup Withholding and Information
Reporting&rdquo; and &ldquo;&mdash;Foreign Accounts&rdquo; for additional information regarding withholding rules&nbsp;that may apply
to proceeds of a disposition of the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants paid to foreign financial institutions or non-financial
foreign entities.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Backup Withholding and Information Reporting</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We must report annually to the IRS and to each Non-U.S. Holder the
gross amount of the distributions (including constructive distributions) on the Common Stock, pre-funded warrants or common warrants
paid to such holder and the tax withheld, if any, with respect to such distributions. Non-U.S. Holders may have to comply with specific
certification procedures to establish that the holder is not a U.S. person (as defined in the Code) in order to avoid backup withholding
at the applicable rate, currently 24%, with respect to dividends (or constructive dividends) on the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants
or Common Warrants. Generally, a holder will comply with such procedures if it provides a properly executed IRS Form&nbsp;W-8BEN (or
other applicable Form&nbsp;W-8) or otherwise meets documentary evidence requirements for establishing that it is a Non-U.S. Holder, or
otherwise establishes an exemption. Dividends paid to Non-U.S. Holders subject to withholding of U.S. federal income tax, as described
above under the heading &ldquo;Distributions,&rdquo; will generally be exempt from U.S. backup withholding.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Information reporting and backup withholding generally will apply
to the proceeds of a disposition of the Common Stock, pre-funded warrants or common warrants by a Non-U.S. Holder effected by or through
the U.S. office of any broker, U.S. or foreign, unless the holder certifies its status as a Non-U.S. Holder and satisfies certain other
requirements, or otherwise establishes an exemption. Generally, information reporting and backup withholding will not apply to a payment
of disposition proceeds to a Non-U.S. Holder where the transaction is effected outside the United States through a non-U.S. office of
a broker. However, for information reporting purposes, dispositions effected through a non-U.S. office of a broker with substantial U.S.
ownership or operations generally will be treated in a manner similar to dispositions effected through a U.S. office of a broker. Non-U.S.
Holders should consult their own tax advisors regarding the application of the information reporting and backup withholding rules&nbsp;to
them.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Copies of information returns may be made available to the tax authorities
of the country in which the Non-U.S. Holder resides or is incorporated under the provisions of a specific treaty or agreement.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Backup withholding is not an additional tax. Any amounts withheld
under the backup withholding rules&nbsp;from a payment to a Non-U.S. Holder can be refunded or credited against the Non-U.S. Holder&rsquo;s
U.S. federal income tax liability, if any, provided that an appropriate claim is timely filed with the IRS.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Foreign Accounts</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act, or FATCA, generally imposes
a 30% withholding tax on dividends (including constructive dividends) on the Common Stock, pre-funded warrants and common warrants if
paid to a non-U.S. entity unless (i)&nbsp;if the non-U.S. entity is a &ldquo;foreign financial institution,&rdquo; the non-U.S. entity
undertakes certain due diligence, reporting, withholding, and certification obligations, (ii)&nbsp;if the non-U.S. entity is not a &ldquo;foreign
financial institution,&rdquo; the non-U.S. entity identifies certain of its U.S. investors, if any, or (iii)&nbsp;the non-U.S. entity
is otherwise exempt under FATCA.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Withholding under FATCA generally will apply to payments of dividends
(including constructive dividends) on the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants and Common Warrants. While withholding under FATCA would
have also applied to payments of gross proceeds from a sale or other disposition of the Common Stock, pre-funded warrants or common warrants,
under proposed U.S. Treasury Regulations withholding on payments of gross proceeds is not required. Although such regulations are not
final, applicable withholding agents may rely on the proposed regulations until final regulations are issued.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">An intergovernmental agreement between the United States and an applicable
foreign country may modify the requirements described in this section. Under certain circumstances, a holder may be eligible for refunds
or credits of the tax. Holders should consult their own tax advisors regarding the possible implications of FATCA on their investment
in the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or Common Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b><i>Federal Estate Tax</i></b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Common Stock owned or treated as owned by an individual who is not
a citizen or resident of the United States (as specially defined for U.S. federal estate tax purposes) at the time of death will be included
in the individual&rsquo;s gross estate for U.S. federal estate tax purposes and, therefore, may be subject to U.S. federal estate tax,
unless an applicable estate tax or other treaty provides otherwise. The foregoing may also apply to common warrants and pre-funded warrants.
A Non-U.S. Holder should consult his, her, or its own tax advisor regarding the U.S. federal estate tax consequences of the ownership
or disposition of shares of the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants and Common Warrants.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The preceding discussion of material U.S. federal tax considerations
is for information only. It is not tax advice. Prospective investors should consult their own tax advisors regarding the particular U.S.
federal, state, local and non-U.S. tax consequences of purchasing, holding and disposing of the Common Stock, Pre-Funded Warrants or
Common Warrants, including the consequences of any proposed changes in applicable laws.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_011"></a>Plan
of Distribution</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">A.G.P./Alliance Global Partners has agreed to act as our sole Placement
Agent in connection with this offering subject to the terms and conditions of the placement agency agreement dated [<font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font>],
2025. The Placement Agent is not purchasing or selling any of the securities offered by this prospectus, nor is it required to arrange
for the purchase and sale of any specific number or dollar amount of such securities, other than to use its reasonable &ldquo;best efforts&rdquo;
to arrange for the sale of such securities by us. Therefore, we may not sell all of the securities being offered pursuant to this prospectus.
The securities will be offered at a fixed price and are expected to be issued in a single closing. We will enter into a securities purchase
agreement directly with certain investors, at the investor&rsquo;s option, who purchase our securities in this offering. Investors who
do not enter into a securities purchase agreement shall rely solely on this prospectus in connection with the purchase of our securities
in this offering.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We will deliver the securities being issued to the investors upon
receipt of investor funds for the purchase of the securities offered pursuant to this prospectus. We expect to deliver the securities
being offered pursuant to this prospectus on or about &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,
2025.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Fees and Expenses</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have agreed to pay the Placement Agent an aggregate fee equal to
7.0% of the purchase price paid by all purchasers in this offering. In addition, we have agreed to reimburse the Placement Agent for
its legal fees in an amount up to $85,000 and non-accountable expenses of up to $15,000.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> We estimate the total expenses of this offering paid or payable
by us, exclusive of the placement agent fee and reimbursements, will be approximately $250,000. After deducting the fees due to the Placement
Agent and our estimated expenses in connection with this offering, we expect the net proceeds from this offering will be approximately
$8.95&nbsp;million (based on an assumed combined public offering price per share of Common Stock and accompanying Common Warrant of $1.19,
which was the last reported sales price of the Common Stock on the NYSE American on March&nbsp;17, 2025). </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The following table shows the per share and total cash fees we will
pay to the Placement Agent in connection with the sale of the securities pursuant to this prospectus.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td><td style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; text-align: center"><p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>Per
                                            Share of<br>
                                            Common Stock<br>
                                            and<br>
                                            Accompanying<br>
                                            Common<br>
                                            Warrant</b></p></td><td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; white-space: nowrap; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: center">Per Pre-Funded<br>
    Warrant and<br> Accompanying<br> Common<br> Warrant</td><td style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: bold; text-align: center">Total</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="width: 49%; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left">Public offering price<sup>(1)</sup></td><td style="width: 2%; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 15%; font-size: 10pt">$</td><td style="width: 2%; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 15%; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;$</td><td style="width: 2%; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 15%; font-size: 10pt">$</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: White">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left">Placement agent fees</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">$</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;$</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">$</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: rgb(204,238,255)">
    <td style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: left">Proceeds before expenses to us<sup>(2)</sup></td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">$</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;$</td><td style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt">$</td></tr>
  </table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="width: 24px"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="width: 24px; font-size: 10pt"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">(1)</font> </td>
    <td style="font-size: 10pt"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">The assumed combined public offering price is $1.19 per share of Common
    Stock and accompanying Common Warrant and $1.189 per Pre-Funded Warrant and accompanying Common Warrant.</font> </td></tr>
  </table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(2)</td><td>Does not include proceeds from the exercise of the Pre-Funded Warrants
                                            or Common Warrants in cash, if any.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Indemnification</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have agreed to indemnify the Placement Agent and specified other
persons against specified liabilities, including liabilities under the Securities Act, and to contribute to payments the Placement Agent
may be required to make in respect thereof.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Lock-Up Agreements</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Our directors and officers have entered into lock-up agreements. Under
these agreements, these individuals agreed, subject to specified exceptions, not to sell or transfer any shares of Common Stock or securities
convertible into, or exchangeable or exercisable for, Common Stock during a period ending 90 days after the completion of this offering,
without first obtaining the written consent of the Placement Agent. Specifically, these individuals agreed, in part, subject to certain
exceptions, not to:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>offer
                                            for sale, sell, pledge, or otherwise transfer or dispose of (or enter into any transaction
                                            or device that is designed to, or could be expected to, result in the transfer or disposition
                                            by any person at any time in the future of) any shares of Common Stock or securities convertible
                                            into or exercisable or exchangeable for Common Stock;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>enter
                                            into any swap or other derivatives transaction that transfers to another, in whole or in
                                            part, any of the economic benefits or risks of ownership of shares of Common Stock; or</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>make
                                            any demand for or exercise any right or cause to be filed a registration statement, including
                                            any amendments thereto, with respect to the registration of any of our securities.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>No Sales of Similar Securities</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have agreed, subject to certain exceptions, not to issue, enter
into any agreement to issue or announce the issuance or proposed issuance of, any shares of Common Stock (or securities convertible into
or exercisable for Common Stock) or, subject to certain exceptions, file any registration statement, including any amendments or supplements
thereto (other than the registration statement or amendment to the registration statement relating to the securities offered hereunder
and a registration statement on Form&nbsp;S-8), until 60 days after the completion of this offering. We have also agreed not to enter
into or issue any shares under a variable rate transaction (as defined in the securities purchase agreement) for six months after the
completion of this offering, except that after the forty-five (45) day anniversary of the closing of this offering we may offer shares
of Common Stock pursuant to the ATM Sales Agreement between the Company and the Placement Agent, provided that after the fifteen (15)
day anniversary of the closing of this offering we may file a prospectus supplement with respect to sales under the Sales Agreement.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Regulation M</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Placement Agent may be deemed to be an underwriter within the
meaning of Section&nbsp;2(a)(11) of the Securities Act, and any commissions received by it and any profit realized on the resale of the
shares sold by it while acting as principal might be deemed to be underwriting discounts or commissions under the Securities Act. As
an underwriter, the Placement Agent would be required to comply with the requirements of the Securities Act and the Exchange Act, including,
without limitation, Rule&nbsp;415(a)(4)&nbsp;under the Securities Act and Rule&nbsp;10b-5 and Regulation M under the Exchange Act. These
rules&nbsp;and regulations may limit the timing of purchases and sales of shares by the Placement Agent acting as principal. Under these
rules&nbsp;and regulations, the placement agents:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>may
                                            not engage in any stabilization activity in connection with our securities; and</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td>may
                                            not bid for or purchase any of our securities or attempt to induce any person to purchase
                                            any of our securities, other than as permitted under the Exchange Act, until it has completed
                                            its participation in the distribution.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Discretionary Accounts</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Placement Agent does not intend to confirm sales of the securities
offered hereby to any accounts over which it has discretionary authority.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Other Activities and Relationships</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Placement Agent and certain of its affiliates are full service
financial institutions engaged in various activities, which may include securities trading, commercial and investment banking, financial
advisory, investment management, investment research, principal investment, hedging, financing and brokerage activities. The Placement
Agent and certain of its affiliates have, from time to time, performed, and may in the future perform, various commercial and investment
banking and financial advisory services for us and our affiliates, for which they received or will receive customary fees and expenses.
For example, A.G.P./Alliance Global Partners was the placement agent for our public offering that was consummated on September 27, 2024
and received a fee of 7% of the gross proceeds of such offering plus an expense reimbursement of $100,000 and is the sales agent under
the ATM Sales Agreement. Under the ATM Sales Agreement, we may offer and sell, from time to time, shares of Common Stock through A.G.P./Alliance
Global Partners in an &ldquo;at the market offering&rdquo; as defined in Rule 415(a)(4) under the Securities Act.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In the ordinary course of its various business activities, the Placement
Agent and certain of its affiliates may make or hold a broad array of investments and actively trade debt and equity securities (or related
derivative securities) and financial instruments (including bank loans) for its own account and for the accounts of its customers, and
such investment and securities activities may involve securities and/or instruments issued by us and our affiliates. If the Placement
Agent or its affiliates have a lending relationship with us, they routinely hedge their credit exposure to us consistent with their customary
risk management policies. The Placement Agent and its affiliates may hedge such exposure by entering into transactions that consist of
either the purchase of credit default swaps or the creation of short positions in our securities or the securities of our affiliates,
including potentially the Common Stock offered hereby. Any such short positions could adversely affect future trading prices of the Common
Stock offered hereby. The Placement Agent and certain of its affiliates may also communicate independent investment recommendations,
market color or trading ideas and/or publish or express independent research views in respect of such securities or instruments and may
at any time hold, or recommend to clients that they acquire, long and/or short positions in such securities and instruments.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_012"></a>LEGAL
MATTERS</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Blank Rome LLP, New York, New York will pass upon certain legal matters
relating to the sale of the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants, offered hereby on our behalf and Parsons Behle&nbsp;&amp; Latimer,
Reno, Nevada will pass on certain legal matters related to the issuance of the Common Stock, Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants
offered hereby on our behalf. Additional legal matters may be passed upon for us or any underwriters, dealers, of agents, by counsel
that we will name in the applicable prospectus supplement.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Thompson Hine LLP, New York, New York, is acting as counsel to the
Placement Agent in connection with certain legal matters related to this offering.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">As of the date of this prospectus, an attorney of Blank Rome LLP beneficially
owns securities exercisable to purchase shares of the Common Stock that represent less than 1% of our outstanding shares of Common Stock.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><a name="a_013"></a><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>EXPERTS</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> The consolidated financial statements of Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc.
as of December&nbsp;31, 2024 and 2023 and for each of the two years in the period ended December&nbsp;31, 2024 incorporated by reference
in this prospectus and in the registration statement have been so incorporated in reliance on the report of BDO USA, P.C, an independent
registered public accounting firm, given on the authority of said firm as experts in auditing and accounting. The report on the consolidated
financial statements contains an explanatory paragraph regarding the Company&rsquo;s ability to continue as a going concern. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_014"></a>WHERE
YOU CAN FIND Additional INFORMATION</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We have filed with the SEC a registration statement under the Securities
Act for the securities offered by this prospectus. This prospectus, which constitutes a part of the registration statement, does not
contain all of the information set forth in the registration statement or the exhibits and schedules filed therewith. For further information
about us and the securities offered hereby, we refer you to the registration statement and the exhibits and schedules filed thereto.
Any statements made in this prospectus concerning legal documents are not necessarily complete and you should read the documents that
are filed as exhibits to the registration statement or otherwise filed with the SEC for a more complete understanding of the document
or matter.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We file annual, quarterly and current reports, proxy statements and
other information with the SEC. Our SEC filings are available to the public at the SEC&rsquo;s website at <i>www.sec.gov</i>. We are
subject to the information and periodic reporting requirements of the Exchange Act, and we file periodic reports, proxy statements and
other information with the SEC. These periodic reports, proxy statements and other information are available at the website of the SEC
referred to above. We maintain a website at <i>https://ir.therivabiologics.com/sec-filings</i>. You may access our Annual Reports on
Form&nbsp;10-K, Quarterly Reports on Form&nbsp;10-Q, Current Reports on Form&nbsp;8-K and amendments to those reports filed or furnished
pursuant to Section&nbsp;13(a)&nbsp;or 15(d)&nbsp;of the Exchange Act with the SEC free of charge at our website as soon as reasonably
practicable after such material is electronically filed with, or furnished to, the SEC. The information contained in, or that can be
accessed through, our website is not incorporated by reference in, and is not part of, this prospectus.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b><a name="a_015"></a>INCORPORATION
OF CERTAIN INFORMATION BY REFERENCE</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The SEC allows us to &ldquo;incorporate by reference&rdquo; information
from other documents that we file with it, which means that we can disclose important information to you by referring you to those documents.
The information incorporated by reference is considered to be part of this prospectus. Information in this prospectus supersedes information
incorporated by reference that we filed with the SEC prior to the date of this prospectus.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We incorporate by reference into this prospectus and the registration
statement of which this prospectus is a part the information or documents listed below that we have filed with the SEC (Commission File
No.&nbsp;001-12584):</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057825000285/tmb-20241231x10k.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit"> <font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font> </a></td><td><a href="https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057825000285/tmb-20241231x10k.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit"> Our
                                            Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K for the fiscal year ended December&nbsp;31, 2024 filed with
                                            the SEC on March&nbsp;6, 2025; and </a></td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in"><font style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt">&middot;</font></td><td><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif">The
                                            description of the Common Stock set forth in (i)&nbsp;our registration statements on </font><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016307000379/s11-7491_8a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;8-A12B, filed with the SEC on June&nbsp;20, 2007 (File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a> and (ii)&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex4d3.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Exhibit&nbsp;4.3&mdash;Description of Securities to our Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K for the fiscal year ended December&nbsp;31, 2023</a>.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We also incorporate by reference any future filings (other than current
reports furnished under Item&nbsp;2.02 or Item&nbsp;7.01 of Form&nbsp;8-K and exhibits filed on such form that are related to such items
unless such Form&nbsp;8-K expressly provides to the contrary) made with the SEC pursuant to Sections&nbsp;13(a), 13(c), 14 or 15(d)&nbsp;of
the Exchange Act, including those made (i)&nbsp;on or after the date of the initial filing of the registration statement of which this
prospectus forms a part and prior to effectiveness of such registration statement, and (ii)&nbsp;on or after the date of this prospectus
but prior to the termination of the offering (i.e., until the earlier of the date on which all of the securities registered hereunder
have been sold or the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part has been withdrawn). Information in such future filings
updates and supplements the information provided in this prospectus. Any statements in any such future filings will automatically be
deemed to modify and supersede any information in any document we previously filed with the SEC that is incorporated or deemed to be
incorporated herein by reference to the extent that statements in the later filed document modify or replace such earlier statements.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">We will furnish without charge to each person, including any beneficial
owner, to whom a prospectus is delivered, upon written or oral request, a copy of any or all of the documents incorporated by reference
into this prospectus but not delivered with the prospectus, including exhibits that are specifically incorporated by reference into such
documents. You should direct any requests for documents to:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc.<br>
9605 Medical Center Drive, Suite&nbsp;270<br>
Rockville, Maryland 20850<br>
Telephone: (301) 417-4364<br>
Attention: Corporate Secretary</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">You may also access these documents, free of charge, on the SEC&rsquo;s
website at <i>www.sec.gov</i> or on our website at <i>https://ir.therivabio.com/sec-filings</i>. The information contained in, or that
can be accessed through, our website is not incorporated by reference in, and is not part of, this prospectus or any accompanying prospectus
supplement.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In accordance with Rule&nbsp;412 of the Securities Act, any statement
contained in a document incorporated by reference herein shall be deemed modified or superseded to the extent that a statement contained
herein or in any other subsequently filed document which also is or is deemed to be incorporated by reference herein modifies or supersedes
such statement.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">You should rely only on information contained in, or incorporated
by reference into, this prospectus and any prospectus supplement. We have not authorized anyone to provide you with information different
from that contained in this prospectus or incorporated by reference into this prospectus. We are not making offers to sell the securities
in any jurisdiction in which such an offer or solicitation is not authorized or in which the person making such offer or solicitation
is not qualified to do so or to anyone to whom it is unlawful to make such an offer or solicitation.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; text-align: center; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><img src="tm2430478d2_s1img001.jpg" alt=""></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"> <b>Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Shares of Common Stock<br>
Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Common Warrants to Purchase Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Shares of Common Stock<br>
Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Pre-Funded Warrants to Purchase Up to 8,403,361&nbsp;Shares of Common Stock<br>
Up to 16,806,722 &nbsp;Shares of Common Stock Underlying the Common Warrants and Pre-Funded Warrants</b> </p>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>PROSPECTUS</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><i>Sole Placement Agent</i></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><b>A.G.P.</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center; text-indent: 1in"><b>, 2025</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>PART&nbsp;II</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>INFORMATION
NOT REQUIRED IN PROSPECTUS</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Item 13. Other Expenses of Issuance and Distribution</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The following table sets forth all expenses to be paid by the registrant,
other than any estimated placement agent fee and reimbursements, in connection with the offering and sale of the shares of Common Stock
being registered. All amounts shown are estimates except for the SEC registration fee.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; text-align: center">Amount</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: #CCEEFF">
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; width: 86%">SEC registration fee</td>
    <td style="width: 2%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; width: 1%"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif">$</font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top; width: 10%; text-align: right"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif">3,062</font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; width: 1%">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">FINRA filing fee</td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif">3,500</font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: #CCEEFF">
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">Accounting fees and expenses</td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right">30,000</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: white">
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">Legal fees and expenses</td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right">175,000</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="background-color: #CCEEFF">
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; padding-bottom: 1pt">Other miscellaneous expenses</td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; vertical-align: top; text-align: right">38,438</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom; padding-bottom: 1pt">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom; background-color: white">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 2.5pt">Total expenses</td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 2.25pt double">$</td>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 2.25pt double; text-align: right">250,000</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 2.5pt">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Item 14. Indemnification of Directors and Officers</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Section&nbsp;78.138 of the Nevada Revised Statute provides that, subject
to certain exceptions, a director or officer is not individually liable to the corporation or its stockholders or creditors for any damages
as a result of any act or failure to act in his capacity as a director or officer unless the presumption that the director or officer
acted in good faith, on an informed basis and with a view to the interest of the corporation is rebutted and it is proven that (1)&nbsp;his
act or failure to act constituted a breach of his fiduciary duties as a director or officer and (2)&nbsp;his breach of those duties involved
intentional misconduct, fraud or a knowing violation of law.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">This provision is intended to afford directors and officers protection
against and to limit their potential liability for monetary damages resulting from suits alleging a breach of the duty of care by a director
or officer. As a consequence of this provision, stockholders of our company will be unable to recover monetary damages against directors
or officers for action taken by them that may constitute negligence or gross negligence in performance of their duties unless such conduct
falls within one of the foregoing exceptions. The provision, however, does not alter the applicable standards governing a director&rsquo;s
or officer&rsquo;s fiduciary duty and does not eliminate or limit the right of our company or any stockholder to obtain an injunction
or any other type of non-monetary relief in the event of a breach of fiduciary duty.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Registrant&rsquo;s Articles of Incorporation, as amended, and
second amended and restated bylaws provide for indemnification of directors, officers, employees or agents of the Registrant to the fullest
extent permitted by Nevada law (as amended from time to time). Section&nbsp;78.7502 of the Nevada Revised Statute provides that a corporation
may indemnify any person who was or is a party or is threatened to be made a party to any threatened, pending or completed action, suit
or proceeding, whether civil, criminal, administrative or investigative, except an action by or in the right of the corporation, by reason
of the fact that the person is or was a director, officer, employee or agent of the corporation, or is or was serving at the request
of the corporation as a director, officer, employee or agent of another corporation, partnership, joint venture, trust or other enterprise
or as a manager of a limited-liability company, against expenses, including attorneys&rsquo; fees, judgments, fines and amounts paid
in settlement actually and reasonably incurred by the person in connection with the action, suit or proceeding if the person is not liable
as provided above and acted in good faith and in a manner he or she reasonably believed to be in, or not opposed to, the best interest
of a company and, with respect to any criminal action or proceeding, had no reasonable cause to behave his conduct was unlawful.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>



<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The registrant has entered into separate indemnification agreements
with each of the registrant&rsquo;s directors and certain of the registrant&rsquo;s officers which require the registrant, among other
things, to indemnify them against certain liabilities which may arise by reason of their status as directors or officers.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The Registrant has an insurance policy in place that covers its officers
and directors with respect to certain liabilities, including liabilities arising under the Securities Act or otherwise.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">Any underwriting agreement, agency agreement, equity distribution
agreement or similar agreement that the Registrant may enter into will likely provide for indemnification by any underwriters or agents
of the Registrant, its directors, its officers who sign the registration statement and the Registrant&rsquo;s controlling persons for
some liabilities, including liabilities arising under the Securities Act.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Item 15. Recent Sales of Unregistered Securities</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">During the last three years, we have issued unregistered securities
to the persons described below. None of these transactions involved any underwriters, underwriting discounts or commissions, or any public
offering. We believe that each transaction was exempt from the registration requirements of the Securities Act by virtue of Section&nbsp;4(a)(2)&nbsp;thereof
and Regulation S thereof or Rule&nbsp;506(b)&nbsp;of Regulation D thereunder as a transaction not involving a public offering other than
exchanges of securities that were exempt from the registration requirements of the Securities Act by virtue of Section&nbsp;3(a)(9).
The recipients both had access, through their relationship with us, to information about us.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> On March&nbsp;10, 2022, we acquired all the outstanding shares
of VCN Biosciences, S.L., a corporation organized under the laws of Spain (&ldquo;VCN&rdquo;). As consideration for the purchase we paid
$4,700,000 (the &ldquo;Closing Cash Consideration&rdquo;) to Grifols Innovation and New Technologies Limited (&ldquo;Grifols&rdquo;),
the owner of approximately 86% of the equity of VCN, and issued to the remaining sellers and certain key employees and consultants of
VCN 105,581 shares of Common Stock. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">On July&nbsp;29, 2022, we closed a private placement offering pursuant
to the terms of a Securities Purchase Agreement (the &ldquo;Purchase Agreement&rdquo;) dated as of July&nbsp;28, 2022 entered into with
MSD Credit Opportunity Master Fund, L.P. (the &ldquo;Investor&rdquo;), pursuant to which we issued and sold 275,000 shares of the Company&rsquo;s
Series&nbsp;C Convertible Preferred Stock, par value $0.001 per share (the &ldquo;Series&nbsp;C Preferred Stock&rdquo;), and 100,000
shares of the Company&rsquo;s Series&nbsp;D Convertible Preferred Stock, par value $0.001 per share (the &ldquo;Series&nbsp;D Preferred
Stock,&rdquo; and together with the Series&nbsp;C Preferred Stock, the &ldquo;Preferred Stock&rdquo;), at an offering price of $8.00
per share, for gross proceeds of approximately $3.0 million in the aggregate, before the deduction of discounts, fees and offering expenses,
all of which have been converted as of this date (as set forth below).</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In May&nbsp;2024, July&nbsp;2024 and September&nbsp;2024, we issued
72,132 shares of Common Stock upon the conversion effected on such dates by the holder of 275,000 shares of the Company&rsquo;s Series&nbsp;C
Preferred Stock at a conversion price of $30.50 per share.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">In September&nbsp;2024, we issued 26,230 shares of Common Stock upon
the conversion effected on such date by the holder of 100,000 shares of the Company&rsquo;s Series&nbsp;D Preferred Stock at a conversion
price of $30.50 per share.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Item 16. Exhibits and Financial Statement Schedules</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The exhibits to this registration statement are listed in the Exhibit&nbsp;Index
to this registration statement, which immediately precedes the Signature Page&nbsp;and which Exhibit&nbsp;Index is hereby incorporated
by reference.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"><b>Item 17. Undertakings</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The undersigned registrant hereby undertakes:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(1)</td><td>To file, during any period in which offers or sales are being made,
                                            a post-effective amendment to this registration statement:</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.75in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">i.</td><td>To include any prospectus required by Section&nbsp;10(a)(3)&nbsp;of
                                            the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.75in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">ii.</td><td>&#8239;To reflect in the prospectus any facts or events arising
                                            after the effective date of the registration statement (or the most recent post-effective
                                            amendment thereof) which, individually or in the aggregate, represent a fundamental change
                                            in the information set forth in the registration statement. Notwithstanding the foregoing,
                                            any increase or decrease in volume of securities offered (if the total dollar value of securities
                                            offered would not exceed that which was registered) and any deviation from the low or high
                                            end of the estimated maximum offering range may be reflected in the form of prospectus filed
                                            with the SEC pursuant to Rule&nbsp;424(b)&nbsp;if, in the aggregate, the changes in volume
                                            and price represent no more than a 20% change in the maximum aggregate offering price set
                                            forth in the &ldquo;Calculation of Registration Fee&rdquo; table in the effective registration
                                            statement; and</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.75in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">iii.</td><td>To include any material information with respect to the plan of
                                            distribution not previously disclosed in the registration statement or any material change
                                            to such information in the registration statement;</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0 0pt 0.5in">provided, however, that paragraphs (i), (ii)&nbsp;and (iii)&nbsp;above
do not apply if the information required to be included in a post-effective amendment by those paragraphs is contained in periodic reports
filed with or furnished to the SEC by the registrant pursuant to Section&nbsp;13 or Section&nbsp;15(d)&nbsp;of the Securities Exchange
Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, that are incorporated by reference in the registration statement, or is contained in a
form of prospectus filed pursuant to Rule&nbsp;424(b)&nbsp;that is a part of the registration statement.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(2)</td><td>That, for the purpose of determining any liability under the Securities
                                            Act, each such post-effective amendment shall be deemed to be a new registration statement
                                            relating to the securities offered therein, and the offering of such securities at that time
                                            shall be deemed to be the initial bona fide offering thereof.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(3)</td><td>To remove from registration by means of a post-effective amendment
                                            any of the securities being registered which remain unsold at the termination of the offering.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(4)</td><td>That, for the purpose of determining liability under the Securities
                                            Act of 1933 to any purchaser, each prospectus filed pursuant to Rule&nbsp;424(b)&nbsp;as
                                            part of a registration statement relating to an offering, other than registration statements
                                            relying on Rule&nbsp;430B or other than prospectuses filed in reliance on Rule&nbsp;430A,
                                            shall be deemed to be part of and included in the registration statement as of the date it
                                            is first used after effectiveness. Provided, however, that no statement made in a registration
                                            statement or prospectus that is part of the registration statement or made in a document
                                            incorporated or deemed incorporated by reference into the registration statement or prospectus
                                            that is part of the registration statement will, as to a purchaser with a time of contract
                                            of sale prior to such first use, supersede or modify any statement that was made in the registration
                                            statement or prospectus that was part of the registration statement or made in any such document
                                            immediately prior to such date of first use.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(5)</td><td>That, for the purpose of determining liability under the Securities
                                            Act of 1933 to any purchaser in the initial distribution of the securities: the undersigned
                                            registrant undertakes that in a primary offering of securities of the undersigned registrant
                                            pursuant to this registration statement, regardless of the underwriting method used to sell
                                            the securities to the purchaser, if the securities are offered or sold to such purchaser
                                            by means of any of the following communications, the undersigned registrant will be a seller
                                            to the purchaser and will be considered to offer or sell such securities to such purchaser:
                                            (i)&nbsp;any preliminary prospectus or prospectus of the undersigned registrant relating
                                            to the offering required to be filed pursuant to Rule&nbsp;424; (ii)&nbsp;any free writing
                                            prospectus relating to the offering prepared by or on behalf of the undersigned registrant
                                            or used or referred to by the undersigned registrant; (iii)&nbsp;the portion of any other
                                            free writing prospectus relating to the offering containing material information about the
                                            undersigned registrant or its securities provided by or on behalf of the undersigned registrant;
                                            and (iv)&nbsp;any other communication that is an offer in the offering made by the undersigned
                                            registrant to the purchaser.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(6)</td><td>That, for purposes of determining any liability under the Securities
                                            Act, each filing of the registrant&rsquo;s annual report pursuant to Section&nbsp;13(a)&nbsp;or
                                            Section&nbsp;15(d)&nbsp;of the Exchange Act (and, where applicable, each filing of an employee
                                            benefit plan&rsquo;s annual report pursuant to Section&nbsp;15(d)&nbsp;of the Exchange Act)
                                            that is incorporated by reference in the registration statement shall be deemed to be a new
                                            registration statement relating to the securities offered therein, and the offering of such
                                            securities at that time shall be deemed to be the initial bona fide offering thereof.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in"></td><td style="width: 0.25in">(7)</td><td>Insofar as indemnification for liabilities arising under the Securities
                                            Act may be permitted to directors, officers and controlling persons of the registrant pursuant
                                            to the foregoing provisions or otherwise, the registrant has been advised that in the opinion
                                            of the SEC such indemnification is against public policy as expressed in the Securities Act
                                            and is, therefore, unenforceable. In the event that a claim for indemnification against such
                                            liabilities (other than the payment by the registrant of expenses incurred or paid by a director,
                                            officer or controlling person of the registrant in the successful defense of any action,
                                            suit or proceeding) is asserted by such director, officer or controlling person in connection
                                            with the securities being registered, the registrant will, unless in the opinion of its counsel
                                            the matter has been settled by controlling precedent, submit to a court of appropriate jurisdiction
                                            the question whether such indemnification by it is against public policy as expressed in
                                            the Securities Act and will be governed by the final adjudication of such issue.</td></tr></table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>EXHIBIT&nbsp;INDEX</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The following is a list of exhibits filed as a part of this registration
statement:</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">The exhibits listed in the accompanying Exhibit&nbsp;Index are filed
or incorporated by reference as part of this registration statement.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center; width: 10%"><u>Exhibit<br>
    No.</u></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; width: 2%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; width: 88%; text-align: left"><u>Description</u></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465921016924/tm216028d1_ex1-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">1.1</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465921016924/tm216028d1_ex1-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amended
    and Restated At Market Issuance Sales Agreement by and among Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc., B. Riley Securities,&nbsp;Inc. and A.G.P./Alliance
    Global Partners, dated February&nbsp;9, 2021 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;1.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report
    on Form&nbsp;8-K filed February&nbsp;10, 2021), File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465921060274/tm2114499d2_ex1-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">1.2</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465921060274/tm2114499d2_ex1-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amendment
    No.&nbsp;1, dated May&nbsp;3, 2021, to the Amended and Restated At Market Issuance Sales Agreement by and among Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc.,
    B. Riley Securities,&nbsp;Inc. and A.G.P./Alliance Global Partners, dated February&nbsp;9, 2021 ((Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;1.2
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed May&nbsp;3, 2021)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924056146/tm2413223d1_ex10-3.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">1.3</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924056146/tm2413223d1_ex10-3.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amendment
    No.&nbsp;2, dated May&nbsp;2, 2024, to the Amended and Restated At Market Issuance Sales Agreement by and among Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc.,
    and A.G.P./Alliance Global Partners, dated February&nbsp;9, 2021 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.3 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed May&nbsp;2, 2024)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><p style="margin: 0pt 0"> <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465925004895/tm2430478d2_ex1-4.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">1.4^</a> </p></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><p style="margin: 0pt 0"> <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465925004895/tm2430478d2_ex1-4.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of Placement Agency Agreement</a> </p></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465921149412/tm2135322d2_ex2-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">2.1</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465921149412/tm2135322d2_ex2-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Share
    Purchase Agreement by and among Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc., VCN Biosciences, S.L. and the shareholders of VCN Biosciences, S.L.
    dated December&nbsp;14, 2021(Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;2.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K
    filed December&nbsp;14, 2021, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922032661/tm228957d1_ex2-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">2.2</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922032661/tm228957d1_ex2-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amendment,
    dated March&nbsp;9, 2022, to the Share Purchase Agreement, by and among Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc., VCN Biosciences, S.L. and the
    shareholders of VCN Biosciences, S.L., dated December&nbsp;14, 2021 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;2.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed March&nbsp;11, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center">3.1</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left">Certificate of Incorporation, as amended (Incorporated by reference to (i)&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016308000665/s11-8824_ex31.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Exhibit&nbsp;3.1</a>
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed October&nbsp;16, 2008, File No.&nbsp;001-12584, (ii)&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000095012401502861/c64437ex3-1.txt" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Exhibit&nbsp;3.1</a>
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Quarterly Report on Form&nbsp;10-Q for the quarterly period ended June&nbsp;30, 2001 filed August&nbsp;14,
    2001, File No.&nbsp;001-12584; and (iii)&nbsp;Exhibits <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/0000921895-98-000694-index.html" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.1</a>,
    <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/0000921895-98-000694-index.html" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">4.1</a> and
    <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/0000921895-98-000694-index.html" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">4.2</a> of
    the Registrant&rsquo;s Quarterly Report on Form&nbsp;10-Q for the quarterly period ended June&nbsp;30, 1998 filed August&nbsp;14,
    1998, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016309000007/s22-9415_ex31.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.2</a></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016309000007/s22-9415_ex31.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Articles
    of Merger (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed October&nbsp;19,
    2009, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
</table>

<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="margin: 0"></p>

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    <div style="break-before: page; margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 12pt"><p style="margin: 0pt">&nbsp;</p></div>
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<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center; width: 10%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016309000007/s22-9415_ex32.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.3</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; width: 2%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left; width: 88%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016309000007/s22-9415_ex32.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Merger filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed October&nbsp;19, 2009, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016309000007/s22-9415_ex33.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.4</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016309000007/s22-9415_ex33.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Articles
    of Incorporation filed with the Nevada Secretary of State (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.3 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed October&nbsp;19, 2009, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420412009508/v302955_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.5</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420412009508/v302955_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Amendment to Articles of Incorporation (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report
    on Form&nbsp;8-K filed February&nbsp;16, 2012, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420415031962/v411020_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.6</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420415031962/v411020_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Amendment to Certificate of Incorporation. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant's Current Report on
    Form&nbsp;8-K filed May&nbsp;18, 2015, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420417047316/v474831_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.7</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420417047316/v474831_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Amendment to Certificate of Incorporation. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report
    on Form&nbsp;8-K filed September&nbsp;8, 2017, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420417047548/v474946_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.8</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420417047548/v474946_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Designations for Series&nbsp;A Preferred Stock to Certificate of Incorporation (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed September&nbsp;12, 2017, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418043710/tv500716_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.9</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418043710/tv500716_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Change Pursuant to NRS 78. 209 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K
    filed August&nbsp;13, 2018, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418050928/tv503400_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.10</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418050928/tv503400_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Amendment to Articles of Incorporation (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report
    on Form&nbsp;8-K filed September&nbsp;26, 2018, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418053807/tv504760_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.11</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418053807/tv504760_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Designations for Series&nbsp;B Preferred Stock to Certificate of Incorporation (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed October&nbsp;15, 2018, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418053807/tv504760_ex3-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.12</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418053807/tv504760_ex3-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Amendment to Certificate of Designations for Series&nbsp;B Preferred Stock to Certificate of Incorporation (Incorporated by reference
    to Exhibit&nbsp;3.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed October&nbsp;15, 2018, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465921009794/tm214840d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.13</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465921009794/tm214840d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Amendment to the Certificate of Designation for the Series&nbsp;A Convertible Preferred Stock (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K/A filed on February&nbsp;1, 2021 File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922082251/tm2221681d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.14</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922082251/tm2221681d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Change filed with the Secretary of State of the State of Nevada on July&nbsp;21, 2022 (effective as of July&nbsp;25, 2022) (Incorporated
    by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on July&nbsp;25, 2022 (File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922084301/tm2222078d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.15</a></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922084301/tm2222078d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Certificate of Designation of Series&nbsp;C Convertible Preferred Stock (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on July&nbsp;29, 2022 (File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
</table>

<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="margin: 0"></p>

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<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center; width: 10%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922084301/tm2222078d1_ex3-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.16</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; width: 2%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left; width: 88%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922084301/tm2222078d1_ex3-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Certificate of Designation of Series&nbsp;D Convertible Preferred Stock (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on July&nbsp;29, 2022 (File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922107928/tm2228052d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.17</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922107928/tm2228052d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Amendment to Articles of Incorporation (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report
    on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on October&nbsp;12, 2022 (File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922107928/tm2228052d1_ex3-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.18</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922107928/tm2228052d1_ex3-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Change to Articles of Incorporation (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on
    Form&nbsp;8-K filed on October&nbsp;12, 2022 (File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924092644/tm2422579d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.19</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924092644/tm2422579d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Change filed with the Secretary of State of the State of Nevada on August&nbsp;22, 2024 (effective as of August&nbsp;26, 2024)
    (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed August&nbsp;26, 2024,
    File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465923090511/tm2323521d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.20</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465923090511/tm2323521d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Second
    Amended and Restated Bylaws (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K
    filed August&nbsp;11, 2023, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924113480/tm2427299d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">3.21</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924113480/tm2427299d1_ex3-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Certificate
    of Change to the Articles of Incorporation&nbsp;&nbsp;(Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;3.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current
    Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed November&nbsp;1, 2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420413038075/v348628_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">4.1</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420413038075/v348628_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Specimen
    Stock Certificate (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.1 to the Registrant&rsquo;s Registration Statement on Form&nbsp;S-3
    filed on July&nbsp;3, 2013, File No.&nbsp;333-189794.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418026171/tv492231_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">4.2</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420418026171/tv492231_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Warrant issued December&nbsp;26, 2017 to InSite Communications (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;10-Q filed May&nbsp;8, 2018, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924103813/tm2425109d1_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">4.3</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924103813/tm2425109d1_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Common Warrant (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed September&nbsp;30,
    2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924103813/tm2425109d1_ex4-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">4.4</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924103813/tm2425109d1_ex4-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Pre-Funded Warrant (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed
    September&nbsp;30, 2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex4-5.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">4.5^</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex4-5.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Common Warrant</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex4-6.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">4.6^</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex4-6.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Pre-Funded Warrant</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex5-1a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">5.1(a)^</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex5-1a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Opinion
    of Parsons Behle&nbsp;&amp; Latimer</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex5-1b.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">5.1(b)^</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex5-1b.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Opinion
    of Blank Rome LLP</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016308000028/s11-8078_ex42.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.1*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000089016308000028/s11-8078_ex42.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">2007
    Stock Incentive Plan (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Registration Statement on Form&nbsp;S-8
    filed January&nbsp;18, 2008, File No.&nbsp;333-148764.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000095015209000057/k47262exv10w1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.2*</a></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000095015209000057/k47262exv10w1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Director/Officer Indemnification Agreement (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report
    on Form&nbsp;8-K filed January&nbsp;6, 2009, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
</table>

<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="margin: 0"></p>

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<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center; width: 10%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420410063805/v204023_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.3*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; width: 2%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left; width: 88%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420410063805/v204023_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">2010
    Stock Incentive Plan (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Registration Statement on Form&nbsp;S-8
    filed November&nbsp;29, 2010, File No.&nbsp;333-170858.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d4.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.4</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d4.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Asset
    Purchase Agreement dated November&nbsp;8, 2012 between Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. and Prev ABR LLC (Incorporated by reference to
    Exhibit&nbsp;10.4 of the Registrant's Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K filed on March&nbsp;16, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420412069077/v330545_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.5+</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420412069077/v330545_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Patent
    License Agreement dated December&nbsp;19, 2012 between Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. and The University of Texas at Austin (Incorporated
    by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed December&nbsp;21, 2012, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420413062332/v360550_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.6*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420413062332/v360550_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amended
    and Restated 2010 Stock Incentive Plan (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.1 to the Registrant&rsquo;s Registration Statement
    on Form&nbsp;S-8 filed on November&nbsp;15, 2013, File No.&nbsp;333-192355.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420415022349/v406688_def14a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.7*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420415022349/v406688_def14a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amended
    and Restated 2010 Stock Incentive Plan. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;B to the Definitive Proxy Statement filed on April&nbsp;13,
    2015, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex10d8.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.8</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex10d8.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Lease
    dated April&nbsp;14, 2015 between Registrant. and MCC3, LLC (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.8 to the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K filed on March&nbsp;25, 2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420415047653/v414477_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.9*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420415047653/v414477_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Theriva
    Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. 2010 Stock Incentive Plan, as amended and restated on May&nbsp;15, 2015. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.1
    to the Registrant&rsquo;s Registration Statement on Form&nbsp;S-8 filed on August&nbsp;10, 2015, File No.&nbsp;333-206268.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420415070350/v426642_ex10-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.10*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420415070350/v426642_ex10-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Stock Option Agreement. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K
    filed December&nbsp;10, 2015, File No.&nbsp;001-12584.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420416122164/v448017_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.11*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420416122164/v448017_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Theriva
    Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. 2010 Stock Incentive Plan, as amended and restated on May&nbsp;31, 2016. (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.1
    to the Registrant&rsquo;s Registration Statement on Form&nbsp;S-8 filed on August&nbsp;31, 2016, File No.&nbsp;333-206268.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420417047318/v474807_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.12*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420417047318/v474807_ex4-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amended
    and Restated 2010 Stock Incentive Plan (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.1 to the Registrant&rsquo;s Registration Statement
    on Form&nbsp;S-8 filed on September&nbsp;8, 2017, File No.&nbsp;333-220401.)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"> <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420419034736/tv525023_def14a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.13*</a> </td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"> <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420419034736/tv525023_def14a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. 2010 Stock Incentive Plan, as amended (incorporated by reference to Appendix A to the Registrant&rsquo;s Definitive Proxy Statement filed on July&nbsp;15, 2019, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420419038566/tv526986_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.14+</a></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000114420419038566/tv526986_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Clinical
    Trial Agreement between Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis and Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. dated August&nbsp;7,
    2019 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on August&nbsp;8,
    2019, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
</table>

<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="margin: 0"></p>

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<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center; width: 10%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465920090343/tm2026181-1_def14a.htm#z_001" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.15*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; width: 2%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left; width: 88%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465920090343/tm2026181-1_def14a.htm#z_001" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Theriva
    Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. 2020 Stock Incentive Plan (Incorporated by reference to Appendix A to the Registrant&rsquo;s Definitive Proxy
    Statement on Schedule 14A filed on August&nbsp;4, 2020, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465920119032/tm2034204d1_ex4-11.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.16*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465920119032/tm2034204d1_ex4-11.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Incentive Stock Option Grant Agreement (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.11 to the Registration Statement on Form&nbsp;S-8
    filed on October&nbsp;28, 2020, File No.&nbsp;333-249712)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465920119032/tm2034204d1_ex4-12.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.17*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465920119032/tm2034204d1_ex4-12.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Nonqualified Stock Option Grant Agreement (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.12 to the Registration Statement on Form&nbsp;S-8
    filed on October&nbsp;28, 2020, File No.&nbsp;333-249712)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465920119032/tm2034204d1_ex4-13.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.18*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465920119032/tm2034204d1_ex4-13.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Restricted Stock Unit Award Agreement (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;4.13 to the Registration Statement on Form&nbsp;S-8
    filed on October&nbsp;28, 2020, File No.&nbsp;333-249712)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex10d19.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.19+</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex10d19.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Second
    Amendment to Lease dated May&nbsp;6, 2021 by and between Registrant and ARE-Maryland No.&nbsp;50, LLC (Incorporated by reference
    to Exhibit&nbsp;10.19 of the Registrant's Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K filed on March&nbsp;25, 2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922000998/tm221380d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.20*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922000998/tm221380d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Employment
    Agreement with Steven Shallcross dated January&nbsp;3, 2022 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on January&nbsp;4, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d32.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.21+</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d32.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Contract
    to Grant Marketing License for Catalan Institute of Oncology Patent Ownership Application to VCN Biosciences S.L. (Incorporated by
    reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.32 of the Registrant's Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K filed on March&nbsp;16, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d33.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.22+</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d33.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">License
    Agreement between Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute Foundation (Idibell) and VCN Biosciences S.L. dated May&nbsp;4, 2016 (Incorporated
    by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.33 of the Registrant's Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K filed on March&nbsp;16, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d34.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.23+</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d34.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Technology
    Transfer Agreement between Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute and VCN Biosciences S.L. dated August&nbsp;31, 2010 (Incorporated
    by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.34 of the Registrant's Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K filed on March&nbsp;16, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d35.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.24+</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822000405/syn-20211231xex10d35.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Collaboration
    Agreement to Conduct a Clinical Trial and Grant Operating License Agreement between Hospital Sant Joan Dee Deu and VCN Biosciences,
    S.L dated February&nbsp;15, 2016 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.35 of the Registrant's Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K
    filed on March&nbsp;16, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922036805/tm2210202d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.25*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922036805/tm2210202d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Employment
    Agreement with Frank Tufaro dated March&nbsp;22, 2022 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current
    Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on March&nbsp;23, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex10d26.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.26*</a></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex10d26.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Employment
    Agreement with Mary Ann Shallcross dated April&nbsp;8, 2022 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.26 of the Registrant's
    Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K filed on March&nbsp;25, 2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
</table>

<p style="margin: 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="margin: 0"></p>

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<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center; width: 10%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922084301/tm2222078d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.27</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; width: 2%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left; width: 88%"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922084301/tm2222078d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Securities
    Purchase Agreement between Synthetic Biologics Inc. and MSD Credit Opportunity Master Fund, L.P., dated as of July&nbsp;28, 2022
    (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on July&nbsp;29,
    2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822002238/syn-20220630xex10d2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.28</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057822002238/syn-20220630xex10d2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amendment
    No.&nbsp;1 dated as of August&nbsp;9, 2022 to Securities Purchase Agreement between Synthetic Biologics Inc. and MSD Credit Opportunity
    Master Fund, L.P., dated as of July&nbsp;28, 2022 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Quarterly
    Report on Form&nbsp;10-Q filed on August&nbsp;11, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922128671/tm2233150d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.29*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922128671/tm2233150d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amendment
    No.&nbsp;1 to Employment Agreement between Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. and Steven A. Shallcross, dated as of December&nbsp;15, 2022
    (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on December&nbsp;20,
    2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922128671/tm2233150d1_ex10-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.30*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922128671/tm2233150d1_ex10-2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amendment
    No.&nbsp;1 to Employment Agreement between Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. and Francis Tufaro, dated as of December&nbsp;15, 2022 (Incorporated
    by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.2 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on December&nbsp;20, 2022, File
    No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922129900/tm2233416d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.31</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465922129900/tm2233416d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Share Repurchase Agreement between Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. and certain selling stockholders (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed on December&nbsp;23, 2022, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057823000987/tmb-20230331xex10d1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.32*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057823000987/tmb-20230331xex10d1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Separation
    Agreement, dated as of May&nbsp;8, 2023, between Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. and Frank Tufaro (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Quarterly Report on Form&nbsp;10-Q filed on May&nbsp;11, 2023, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057823000987/tmb-20230331xex10d2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.33*</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057823000987/tmb-20230331xex10d2.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Consulting
    Agreement, dated as of May&nbsp;8, 2023, between Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. and Frank Tufaro (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.2
    of the Registrant&rsquo;s Quarterly Report on Form&nbsp;10-Q filed on May&nbsp;11, 2023, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924113480/tm2427299d1d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.34</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924113480/tm2427299d1d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Amendment
    No.&nbsp;2 to the Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc. 2020 Stock Incentive Plan (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s
    Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K filed November&nbsp;1, 2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924103813/tm2425109d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.35</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924103813/tm2425109d1_ex10-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of
    Securities Purchase Agreement (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Current Report on Form&nbsp;8-K
    Filed September&nbsp;30, 2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><p style="margin: 0pt 0; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif"> <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057825000285/tmb-20241231xex10d36.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.36*</a> </p></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><p style="margin: 0pt 0; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif"> <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057825000285/tmb-20241231xex10d36.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Employment Agreement between Theriva Biologics, Inc. and Steven A. Shallcross, dated as of March 3, 2025 (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;10.36 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Annual Report on Form 10-K filed on March 6, 2025, File No. 001-12584)</a> </p></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><p style="margin: 0pt 0; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif"> <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465925004895/tm2430478d2_ex10-36.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">10.37</a><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465925004895/tm2430478d2_ex10-36.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">^</a> </p></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt"> &nbsp; </td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"> <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465925004895/tm2430478d2_ex10-36.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Form&nbsp;of Securities Purchase Agreement</a> </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex21d1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">21.1</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000141057824000293/tmb-20231231xex21d1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">List
    of Subsidiaries (Incorporated by reference to Exhibit&nbsp;21.1 of the Registrant&rsquo;s Annual Report on Form&nbsp;10-K filed on
    March&nbsp;25, 2024, File No.&nbsp;001-12584)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="tm2430478d5_ex23-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">23.1#</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="tm2430478d5_ex23-1.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Consent of BDO USA,
    P.C.,&nbsp;Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex5-1a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">23.2^</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex5-1a.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Consent
    of Parsons Behle&nbsp;&amp; Latimer (included in Exhibit&nbsp;5.1(a))</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex5-1b.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">23.3^</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex5-1b.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Consent
    of Blank Rome LLP (included in Exhibit&nbsp;5.1(b))</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_s1.htm#sign_015" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">24.1^</a></td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="padding-bottom: 5pt; text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_s1.htm#sign_015" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Power
    of Attorney (included in signature page&nbsp;hereto)</a></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="text-align: center"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex-filingfees.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">107^</a></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="text-align: left"><a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/894158/000110465924127275/tm2430478d1_ex-filingfees.htm" style="-sec-extract: exhibit">Filing
    Fee Table</a></td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td>#</td><td>Filed herewith.</td></tr>
                                                                                                                                          <tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
                                                                                                                                          <tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td>^</td><td>Previously filed.</td></tr>
                                                                                                                                          <tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
                                                                                                                                          <tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td style="width: 0.25in">*</td><td>Management contract or compensatory plan or arrangement required to be identified pursuant to Item
                                15(a)(3)&nbsp;of this report.</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
                                                                                                                                                                                                        <tr style="vertical-align: top">
<td>+</td><td>The Company the submitted certain portions of these agreements in accordance with Item&nbsp;601(b)(10)&nbsp;of Regulation
          S-K. The Company agrees to furnish unredacted copies of these exhibits to the SEC upon request.</td></tr>
                                                                                                                                                                                                        </table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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    <div style="break-before: page; margin-top: 6pt; margin-bottom: 12pt"><p style="margin: 0pt">&nbsp;</p></div>
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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><a name="sign_015"></a><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>SIGNATURES</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of
1934, the registrant has duly caused this Amendment No.&nbsp;2 to Registration Statement to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned
hereunto duly authorized, on this 21st&nbsp;day of March, 2025. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td colspan="3"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>Theriva Biologics,&nbsp;Inc.</b></font></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td>&nbsp;</td>
    <td>By:</td>
    <td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid">/s/ Steven A. Shallcross</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="width: 50%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 3%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 5%">Name:</td>
    <td style="width: 42%">&nbsp;Steven A. Shallcross</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top">Title:</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer</td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><font style="text-transform: uppercase"><b>POWER
OF ATTORNEY</b></font></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"> Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Act of 1933, this
Amendment No.&nbsp;2 to registration statement has been signed by the following persons in the capacities and on the dates indicated. </p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; text-align: center; width: 33%"> <font style="font-size: 10pt"><b>Signature</b></font> </td>
    <td style="width: 1%"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; text-align: center; width: 45%"> <font style="font-size: 10pt"><b>Title</b></font> </td>
    <td style="width: 1%"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; text-align: center; width: 20%"> <font style="font-size: 10pt"><b>Date</b></font> </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">/s/ Steven A. Shallcross</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">Chief Executive Officer, Chief Financial Officer</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">March&nbsp;21, 2025</font> </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">Steven A. Shallcross</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">(Principal Executive Officer, Principal Financial Officer and Principal Accounting Officer)
    and Member of the Board of Directors</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">*</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">Member of the Board of Directors</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"><p style="margin: 0pt 0; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">March&nbsp;21,
                                       2025</font> </p></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">Jeffrey J. Kraws</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">*</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">Member of the Board of Directors</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"><p style="margin: 0pt 0; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">March&nbsp;21,
                                       2025</font> </p></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">Jeffrey Wolf</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td style="border-bottom: black 1pt solid; vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">*</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">Member of the Board of Directors</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"><p style="margin: 0pt 0; font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif"> <font style="font-size: 10pt">March&nbsp;21,
                                       2025</font> </p></td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: top">
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">John Monahan, Ph.D.</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td>
    <td> <font style="font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;</font> </td></tr>
  </table>
<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse">
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">*By:</font></td>
    <td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: Black 1pt solid"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">/s/
    Steven A. Shallcross</font></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr style="vertical-align: bottom">
    <td style="width: 5%">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="width: 5%"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">Name:</font></td>
    <td style="width: 40%"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">&nbsp;Steven A. Shallcross</font></td>
    <td style="width: 50%">&nbsp;</td></tr>
  <tr>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom">&nbsp;</td>
    <td style="vertical-align: top"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">Title:</font></td>
    <td style="vertical-align: bottom"><font style="font-family: Times New Roman, Times, Serif; font-size: 10pt">Attorney-in-fact</font></td>
    <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
  </table>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0"></p>

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<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0">&nbsp;</p>

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<DOCUMENT>
<TYPE>EX-23.1
<SEQUENCE>2
<FILENAME>tm2430478d5_ex23-1.htm
<DESCRIPTION>EXHIBIT 23.1
<TEXT>
<html>
<head>
     <title></title>
</head>
<body style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif">

<p style="margin: 0pt">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: right"><b>Exhibit 23.1</b></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: right">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: center"><u>Consent of Independent Registered
Public Accounting Firm</u></p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify; color: fuchsia">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">We hereby consent to the incorporation by reference
in the Prospectus constituting a part of this Registration Statement of our report dated March&nbsp;6, 2025, relating to the consolidated
financial statements of Theriva Biologics, Inc. (the Company) appearing in the Company&rsquo;s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year
ended December 31, 2024. Our report contains an explanatory paragraph regarding the Company&rsquo;s ability to continue as a going concern.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify; color: fuchsia">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">We also consent to the reference
to us under the caption &ldquo;Experts&rdquo; in the Prospectus.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify; color: fuchsia">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify; color: fuchsia">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">/s/ BDO USA, P.C.</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify; color: fuchsia">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">Raleigh, North Carolina</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">March&nbsp;21, 2025</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify"></p>

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    <!-- Field: /Page -->

<p style="font: 10pt Times New Roman, Times, Serif; margin: 0pt 0; text-align: justify">&nbsp;</p>

<p style="margin: 0pt">&nbsp;</p>

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end
</TEXT>
</DOCUMENT>
</SEC-DOCUMENT>
