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Group cash flow statement - USD ($) $ in Millions | 12 Months Ended
--- | ---
Dec. 31, 2018 | Dec. 31, 2017 | Dec. 31, 2016
Statement Of Cash Flows [Abstract] |  |  |  |
Cash flows from consolidated operations |  | $ 15,655 | $ 16,670 | $ 11,368
Dividends from equity accounted units |  | 800 | 817 | 253
Cash flows from operations |  | 16,455 | 17,487 | 11,621
Net interest paid | [1] | (612) | (897) | (1,294)
Dividends paid to holders of non-controlling interests in subsidiaries |  | (420) | (399) | (341)
Tax paid |  | (3,602) | (2,307) | (1,521)
Net cash generated from operating activities |  | 11,821 | 13,884 | 8,465
Cash flows from investing activities |  |  |  |
Purchases of property, plant and equipment and intangible assets |  | (5,430) | (4,482) | (3,012)
Disposals of subsidiaries, joint ventures, unincorporated joint operations, and associates |  | 7,733 | 2,675 | 761
Purchases of financial assets | [2] | 1,572 | 723 | 789
Sales of financial assets | [2] | 19 | 40 | 582
Sales of property, plant and equipment and intangible assets |  | 586 | 138 | 354
Net funding of equity accounted units |  | (9) | (3) | (12)
Acquisitions of subsidiaries, joint ventures and associates |  | (5) |  |
Other investing cash flows |  | (1) | (18) | 12
Net cash generated/(used) in investing activities |  | 1,321 | (2,373) | (2,104)
Cash flows before financing activities |  | 13,142 | 11,511 | 6,361
Cash flows from financing activities |  |  |  |
Equity dividends paid to owners of Rio Tinto |  | (5,356) | (4,250) | (2,725)
Proceeds from additional borrowings |  | 54 | 18 | 4,413
Repayment of borrowings | [1] | (2,300) | (2,795) | (9,361)
Proceeds from issue of equity to non-controlling interests |  | 85 | 170 | 101
Own shares purchased from owners of Rio Tinto |  | (5,386) | (2,083) |
Purchase of non-controlling interests |  |  | (194) | (23)
Other financing cash flows |  | (48) | (7) | 104
Net cash flows used in financing activities |  | (12,951) | (9,141) | (7,491)
Effects of exchange rates on cash and cash equivalents |  | 151 | (12) | (35)
Net increase/(decrease) in cash and cash equivalents |  | 342 | 2,358 | (1,165)
Opening cash and cash equivalents less overdrafts |  | 10,547 | 8,189 | 9,354
Closing cash and cash equivalents less overdrafts |  | $ 10,889 | $ 10,547 | $ 8,189
[1] | (b)We completed a US$1.9 billion (nominal value) bond buy-back programme in April 2018. The notes purchased and redeemed have been cancelled. Net interest paid includes US$80 million being the payment of the premiums and the accelerated interest associated with the bond redemption. In 2017, we completed a US$2.5 billion (nominal value) bond buy-back programme. Net interest paid includes US$259 million being the payment of the premiums and the accelerated interest associated with the bond redemption. In 2016, Rio Tinto completed three bond purchase programmes totalling US$7.5 billion (nominal values). These transactions resulted in net interest paid of US$493 million, which represents the payment of the premiums and the accelerated interest associated with these bond redemptions.
[2] | During 2018, we invested US$1.6 billion (2017: US$0.7 billion) in a separately managed portfolio of fixed income instruments. As there was significant turnover in both years, we have elected to report the purchases and sales of these securities on a net cash flow basis within “Purchases of financial assets”. In 2016, the Group invested US$0.25 billion in these securities and reported the purchases and sales on a gross basis.

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