For these reasons the Group has a policy of moving away from defined benefit pension provisions and towards defined contribution arrangements instead. The defined benefit pension plans for salaried employees are closed to new entrants in almost all countries. For unionised employees, some plans remain open.

The Group does not usually participate in multi-employer plans in which the risks are shared with other companies using those plans. The Group’s participation in such plans is immaterial and consequently no detailed disclosures are provided in this note.

Pension plans

The majority of the Group’s defined benefit pension obligations are in Canada, the UK, the US and Switzerland.

In Canada the benefits for salaried staff are generally linked to final average pay and the plans are generally closed to new entrants. Benefits for bargaining employees are reviewed in negotiation with unions and are typically linked either to final average pay or to a flat monetary amount per year of service. New employees join arrangements which are defined contribution from the Group’s perspective, with any required additional funding being provided by employees. The plans are subject to the regulatory requirements that apply to Canadian pension plans in the relevant provinces and territories (predominantly Quebec). Pension Committees are responsible for ensuring that the plans operate in a manner that is compliant with the relevant regulations. The Pension Committees generally have a number of members appointed by the sponsor and a number appointed by the plan participants. In some cases, there is also an independent Committee member.

The defined benefit sections of the UK arrangements are linked to final pay. New employees are admitted to defined contribution sections. The plans are subject to the regulatory requirements that apply to UK pension plans. Trustees are responsible for ensuring that the plans operate in a manner that is compliant with UK regulations. The trustee board governing the main UK plans has a number of directors appointed by the sponsor, a number appointed by the plan participants and an independent trustee director.

A number of defined benefit pension plans are sponsored by the US entities. Benefits for salaried staff are generally linked to final average pay. Benefits for bargaining employees are reviewed in negotiation with unions and are typically a flat monetary amount per year of service. New employees are admitted to defined contribution plans. A Benefits Governance Committee is responsible for ensuring that the plans are compliant with US regulations. Members of that Committee are appointed by the sponsor.

The Swiss plan provides benefits linked to final average pay. The Swiss plan is overseen by a foundation board which is responsible for ensuring that the plan complies with Swiss regulations. Foundation board members are appointed by the plan sponsor, by employees and by retirees.

In Australia, the main arrangements are principally defined contribution in nature but there are sections providing defined benefits linked to final pay, typically paid in lump sum form. These arrangements are managed by an independent financial institution. Rio Tinto may nominate candidates to be considered for appointment to the governing board, as may other employers. One third of the board positions are nominated by employers, with the remaining positions being filled by independent directors and directors nominated by participants.

The Group also operates a number of unfunded defined benefit plans, which are included in the figures below.

Post-retirement healthcare plans

Certain subsidiaries of the Group, mainly in the US and Canada, provide health and life insurance benefits to retired employees and in some cases to their beneficiaries and covered dependants. Eligibility for cover is dependent upon certain age and service criteria. These arrangements are generally unfunded, and are included in the figures below.

Plan assets

The assets of the pension plans are invested predominantly in a diversified range of equities, bonds and property. Consequently, the funding level of the pension plans is affected by movements in the level of equity markets and also by movements in interest rates. The Group monitors its exposure to changes in interest rates and equity markets and also measures its balance sheet pension risk using a value at risk approach. These measures are considered when deciding whether significant changes in investment strategy are required. Investment strategy reviews are conducted on a periodic basis for the main pension plans to determine the optimal investment mix bearing in mind the Group’s tolerance for risk, the risk tolerance of the local sponsor companies and the views of the Pension Committees and trustee boards who are legally responsible for the investments of the plans. The assets of the pension plans may also be invested in Qualifying Insurance Policies which provide a stream of payments to match the benefits being paid out by the plans, thereby removing investment, inflation and longevity risks.

In Canada, the UK and Switzerland, the Group works with the governing bodies to ensure that the investment policy adopted is consistent with the Group’s tolerance for risk. In the US the Group has direct control over the investment policy, subject to local investment regulations.

The proportions of the total fair value of assets in the pension plans for each asset class at the balance sheet date were:


	2021				2020
Equities	17.6	%			21.1	%
– Quoted			13.4	%			17.9	%
– Private			4.2	%			3.2	%
Bonds	60.2	%			55.8	%
– Government fixed income			23.2	%			17.7	%
– Government inflation-linked			9.5	%			9.6	%
– Corporate and other publicly quoted			20.6	%			22.6	%
– Private			6.9	%			5.9	%
Property	7.9	%			7.5	%
– Quoted property funds			3.4	%			3.1	%
– Unquoted property funds			4.5	%			4.4	%
Qualifying insurance policies	10.5	%			11.3	%
Cash & other	3.8	%			4.3	%
Total	100.0	%			100.0	%

The assets of the plans are managed on a day-to-day basis by external specialist fund managers. These managers may invest in the Group’s securities subject to limits imposed by the relevant fiduciary committees and local legislation. The approximate total holding of Group securities within the plans is US$2 million (2020: US$4 million).

The holdings of quoted equities are invested either in pooled funds or segregated accounts held in the name of the relevant pension funds. These equity portfolios are well diversified in terms of the geographic distribution and market sectors.

The holdings of government bonds are generally invested in the debt of the country in which a pension plan is situated. Corporate and other quoted bonds are usually of investment grade. Private debt is mainly held in the North American and UK pension funds and is invested in North American and European companies.

The property funds are invested in a diversified range of properties.

The holdings of cash & other are predominantly cash and short-term money market instruments.

Investments in private equity, private debt and property are less liquid than the other investment classes listed above and therefore the Group’s investment in those asset classes is restricted to a level that does not endanger the liquidity of the pension plans.

Qualifying insurance policies are held with insurance companies that are regulated by the relevant local authorities. The value of those policies is calculated by the local actuaries using assumptions consistent with those adopted for valuing the insured obligations.

The Group makes limited use of futures, repurchase agreements and other instruments to manage the interest rate risk in some of its plans. Fund managers may also use derivatives to hedge currency movements within their portfolios and, in the case of bond managers, to take positions that could be taken using direct holdings of bonds but more efficiently.

Maturity of defined benefit obligations

An approximate analysis of the maturity of the obligations is given in the table below:


	Pension benefits		Other benefits		2021 Total		2020 Total		2019 Total
Proportion relating to current employees	20	%	17	%	20	%	21	%	20	%
Proportion relating to former employees not yet retired	12	%	0	%	11	%	11	%	12	%
Proportion relating to retirees	68	%	83	%	69	%	68	%	68	%
Total	100	%	100	%	100	%	100	%	100	%
Average duration of obligations (years)	13.8		13.1		13.8		14.3		14.4

42 Post-retirement benefits continued

Geographical distribution of defined benefit obligations

An approximate analysis of the geographic distribution of the obligations is given in the table below:


	Pension benefits		Other benefits		2021 Total		2020 Total		2019 Total
Canada	56	%	48	%	55	%	53	%	53	%
UK	29	%	2	%	28	%	28	%	28	%
US	8	%	47	%	10	%	10	%	10	%
Switzerland	5	%	0	%	5	%	5	%	5	%
Other	2	%	3	%	2	%	4	%	4	%
Total	100	%	100	%	100	%	100	%	100	%

Total expense recognised in the income statement


	Pension benefits US$m	Other benefits US$m	2021 Total US$m	2020 Total US$m	2019 Total US$m
Current employer service cost for defined benefit plans	(159)	(8)	(167)	(137)	(125)
Past service cost	—	(2)	(2)	(2)	—

Settlement (losses)/gains	(3)	—	(3)	(1)	51
Net interest on net defined benefit liability	(28)	(24)	(52)	(49)	(58)
Non-investment expenses paid from the plans	(15)	—	(15)	(16)	(14)
Total defined benefit expense	(205)	(34)	(239)	(205)	(146)
Current employer service cost for defined contribution and industry-wide plans	(313)	(2)	(315)	(264)	(238)
Total expense recognised in the income statement	(518)	(36)	(554)	(469)	(384)

The above expense amounts are included as an employee cost within net operating costs. No amounts have been excluded from underlying earnings in 2021, 2020 or 2019.

The settlement loss in 2021 resulted from pension obligations in France being transferred to an external insurance company. The settlement gains in 2019 were the result of certain US obligations being transferred to external insurance companies and of certain US obligations being settled through a lump sum window exercise being offered to members with a deferred pension. A past service cost of US$1 million was recognised in 2020 in relation to the Lloyds Banking Group court judgment addressing the need to equalise historical transfer values in relation to Guaranteed Minimum Pensions.

Total amount recognised in other comprehensive income before tax


	2021 US$m	2020 US$m	2019 US$m
Actuarial gains/(losses)	655	(1,242)	(1,295)
Return on assets, net of interest on assets	371	768	1,033

Re-measurement gains/(losses) on pension and post-retirement healthcare plans	1,026	(474)	(262)

Amounts recognised in the balance sheet

The following amounts were measured in accordance with IAS 19 at 31 December:


	Pension benefits US$m	Other benefits US$m	2021 Total US$m	2020 Total US$m
Total fair value of plan assets	14,700	—	14,700	14,905
Present value of obligations – funded	(14,462)	—	(14,462)	(15,731)
Present value of obligations – unfunded	(432)	(834)	(1,266)	(1,447)
Present value of obligations – total	(14,894)	(834)	(15,728)	(17,178)

Net deficit to be shown in the balance sheet	(194)	(834)	(1,028)	(2,273)
Comprising:
– Deficits	(1,264)	(834)	(2,098)	(3,055)
– Surpluses	1,070	—	1,070	782
Net deficits on pension plans	(194)	—	(194)	(1,305)
Unfunded post-retirement healthcare obligation	—	(834)	(834)	(968)

The surplus amounts shown above are included in the balance sheet as “Receivables and other assets”. See note 18.

Deficits are shown in the balance sheet within “Provisions (including post-retirement benefits)”. See note 25.

Funding policy and contributions to plans

The Group reviews the funding position of its major pension plans on a regular basis and considers whether to provide funding above the minimum level required in each country. In Canada and the US the minimum level is prescribed by legislation. In the UK and Switzerland the minimum level is negotiated with the local trustee or foundation in accordance with the funding guidance issued by the local regulators. In deciding whether to provide funding above the minimum level the Group takes into account other possible uses of cash within the Group, the tax situation of the local sponsoring entity and any strategic advantage that the Group might obtain by accelerating contributions. The Group does not generally pre-fund post-retirement healthcare arrangements.


	Pension benefits US$m	Other benefits US$m	2021 Total US$m	2020 Total US$m	2019 Total US$m
Contributions to defined benefit plans	425	39	464	201	257
Contributions to defined contribution plans	309	2	311	261	235

Total	734	41	775	462	492

The level of surplus in the Rio Tinto Pension Fund in the UK is such that it may be used to pay for the employer contributions to the defined contribution section of that Fund, in accordance with the funding arrangements agreed with the Trustee of that Fund. Consequently, the cash paid to defined contribution plans is lower than the defined contribution service cost by US$4 million. Contributions to defined benefit pension plans are kept under regular review and actual contributions will be determined in line with the Group’s wider financing strategy, taking into account relevant minimum funding requirements. In 2021 additional cash of US$294 million was paid in order to settle pension obligations in France. This amount was paid to an external insurer, along with the transfer of existing pension assets in order to transfer the obligations to that insurer. As contributions to many plans are reviewed on at least an annual basis, the contributions for 2022 and subsequent years cannot be determined precisely in advance. Most of the Group’s largest pension funds are fully funded on their local funding basis and do not require long-term funding commitments at present. Contributions to defined benefit pension plans for 2022 are estimated to be around US$180 million but may be higher or lower than this depending on the evolution of financial markets and voluntary funding decisions taken by the Group. Contributions for subsequent years are expected to be at similar levels. Healthcare plans are generally unfunded and contributions for future years will be equal to benefit payments net of participant contributions. The Group’s contributions in 2022 are expected to be similar to the amounts paid in 2021.

Movements in the net defined benefit liability

A summary of the movement in the net defined benefit liability is shown in the first table below. The subsequent tables provide a more detailed analysis of the movements in the present value of the obligations and the fair value of assets.


	Pension benefits US$m	Other benefits US$m	2021 Total US$m	2020 Total US$m
Change in the net defined benefit liability
Net defined benefit liability at the start of the year	(1,305)	(968)	(2,273)	(1,730)
Amounts recognised in income statement	(205)	(34)	(239)	(205)
Amounts recognised in other comprehensive income	898	128	1,026	(474)
Employer contributions	425	39	464	201

Assets transferred to defined contribution section	(4)	—	(4)	(3)
Currency exchange rate (loss)/gain	(3)	1	(2)	(62)
Net defined benefit liability at the end of the year	(194)	(834)	(1,028)	(2,273)


	Pension benefits US$m	Other benefits US$m	2021 Total US$m	2020 Total US$m
Change in present value of obligation
Present value of obligation at the start of the year	(16,210)	(968)	(17,178)	(15,653)
Current employer service costs	(159)	(8)	(167)	(137)
Past service cost	—	(2)	(2)	(2)

Settlements	380	—	380	6
Interest on obligation	(304)	(24)	(328)	(384)
Contributions by plan participants	(22)	—	(22)	(22)
Benefits paid	798	39	837	778
Experience gains	27	62	89	61
Changes in financial assumptions gain/(loss)	454	67	521	(1,442)
Changes in demographic assumptions gain/(loss)	46	(1)	45	139


Currency exchange rate gain/(loss)	96	1	97	(522)
Present value of obligation at the end of the year	(14,894)	(834)	(15,728)	(17,178)

42 Post-retirement benefits continued


	Pension benefits US$m	Other benefits US$m	2021 Total US$m	2020 Total US$m
Change in plan assets
Fair value of plan assets at the start of the year	14,905	—	14,905	13,923
Settlements	(383)	—	(383)	(7)
Interest on assets	276	—	276	335
Contributions by plan participants	22	—	22	22
Contributions by employer	425	39	464	201
Benefits paid	(798)	(39)	(837)	(778)
Non-investment expenses	(15)	—	(15)	(16)
Return on plan assets, net of interest on assets	371	—	371	768

Assets transferred to defined contribution section	(4)	—	(4)	(3)
Currency exchange rate (loss)/ gain	(99)	—	(99)	460
Fair value of plan assets at the end of the year	14,700	—	14,700	14,905

The settlement amounts shown above for 2021 relate to France, where assets and obligations for pensions in payment were transferred to an insurance company.

The asset ceiling had no effect during the year. In determining the extent to which the asset ceiling has an effect, the Group considers the funding legislation in each country and the rules specific to each pension plan. The calculation takes into account any minimum funding requirements that may be applicable to the plan, whether any reduction in future Group contributions is available, and whether a refund of surplus may be available. In considering whether any refund of surplus is available the Group considers the powers of trustee boards and similar bodies to augment benefits or wind up a plan. Where such powers are unilateral, the Group does not consider a refund to be available at the end of the life of a plan. Where the plan rules and legislation both permit the employer to take a refund of surplus, the asset ceiling may have no effect, although it may be the case that a refund will only be available many years in the future.

Main assumptions (rates per annum)

The main assumptions for the valuations of the plans under IAS 19 are set out below. Where there are multiple plans in a country the rates below are weighted-average figures.


	Canada		UK		US		Switzerland
At 31 December 2021
Discount rate	2.9	%	1.9	%	2.8	%	0.3	%
Inflation(a)	1.9	%	3.4	%	2.4	%	0.9	%
Rate of increase in pensions	0.3	%	2.9	%	—	%	1.8	%
Rate of increase in salaries	3.1	%	4.2	%	3.9	%	1.9	%

At 31 December 2020
Discount rate	2.5	%	1.2	%	2.2	%	0.1	%
Inflation(a)	1.6	%	2.9	%	2.1	%	0.9	%
Rate of increase in pensions	0.1	%	2.5	%	—	%	0.5	%
Rate of increase in salaries	2.8	%	3.6	%	3.6	%	1.9	%

(a)The inflation assumption shown for the UK is for the Retail Price Index. The assumption for the Consumer Price Index at 31 December 2021 was 2.7% (2020: 2.1%).

The main financial assumptions used for the healthcare plans, which are predominantly in the US and Canada, were: discount rate: 3.1% (2020: 2.5%); medical trend rate: 6.3% reducing to 4.7% by the year 2031 broadly on a straight line basis (2020: 6.3%, reducing to 4.6% by the year 2031); claims costs based on individual company experience.

For both the pension and healthcare arrangements the post-retirement mortality assumptions allow for future improvements in longevity. The mortality tables used imply that a man aged 60 at the balance sheet date has a weighted average expected future lifetime of 27 years (2020: 27 years) and that a man aged 60 in 2041 would have a weighted average expected future lifetime of 28 years (2020: 28 years). The mortality tables are generally based upon the latest standard tables published in each country, adjusted appropriately to reflect the actual mortality experience of the plan participants where credible data is available. No adjustment has been made for the potential future impact of the Covid-19 pandemic; this will be kept under review.

Sensitivity

The values reported for the defined benefit obligations are sensitive to the actuarial assumptions used for projecting future benefit payments and discounting those payments. In order to estimate the sensitivity of the obligations to changes in assumptions, we calculate what the obligations would be if we were to make changes to each of the key assumptions in isolation. The difference between this figure and the figure calculated using our stated assumptions is an indication of the sensitivity to changes in each assumption. The results of this sensitivity analysis are summarised in the table below. Note that this approach is valid for small changes in the assumptions but will be less accurate for larger changes in the assumptions. The sensitivity to inflation includes the impact on pension increases, which are generally linked to inflation where they are granted.


		2021		2020
		Approximate (increase)/decrease in obligations		Approximate (increase)/decrease in obligations
Assumption	Change in assumption	Pensions US$m	Other US$m	Pensions US$m	Other US$m
Discount rate	Increase of 0.5 percentage points	854	51	988	62
	Decrease of 0.5 percentage points	(915)	(55)	(1,186)	(66)
Inflation	Increase of 0.5 percentage points	(393)	(14)	(484)	(19)
	Decrease of 0.5 percentage points	374	13	450	17
Salary increases	Increase of 0.5 percentage points	(55)	(1)	(81)	(1)
	Decrease of 0.5 percentage points	54	1	72	1
Demographic – allowance for future improvements in longevity	Participants assumed to have the mortality rates of individuals who are one year older	441	15	520	19
	Participants assumed to have the mortality rates of individuals who are one year younger	(441)	(15)	(562)	(19)